Feet and the Olympics

Biomechnaical assessment of sport shoes

2012-02-15T13:59:00.003-08:00

London Olympics: GB athletes' barefoot protects

2012-02-09T02:57:00.000-08:00

At the London 2012 Olympics medallists from Great Britain may be barefooted on podium after the British Olympic Association (BOA) took a tough stance over sponsorship. They have warned athletes might have to take off their sponsor’s shoes before walking out to the presentation dais. Sponsor of Team GB’s official ”presentation outfit,” Is Adidas and they are insistant all athletes wear the company’s footwear at all times during the Olympics, including on the podium. The only exception is that competitors can wear any brand of footwear during competition because it is classed as technical equipment. Leading agents of top-line competitors sponsored by footwear giant Nike have told the BOA their athletes would be in breach of contracts if they are forced to wear Team GB’s official ”presentation outfit.” Potential medal winners Mark Cavendish (cycling) and Mo Farah (runner), may collect London 2012 Olympic medals in bare feet to avoid contractual issues.

Barefoot Zola Budd in trainers

2012-01-24T01:55:00.000-08:00

In 1984, 17 year old Zola Budd grabbed the headlines as the barefoot champion who broke the women’s 5 000m world record. She went on to break her own record twice, running barefoot. She was also twice the winner at the World Cross Country Championship in the UK and at the Los Angeles Olympics (1984) had the controversial collision with Mary Decker-Slaney (US) in the women’s 3000m final. Ironically the barefoot champion now promotes running shoes, albeit according to Budd, Newton running shoes, simulate barefoot running. At 45 years old, Budd is still a strong athlete and blisteringly fast runner and although she still likes to run barefoot she trains in trainers.

Barefoot Running

2011-12-28T21:28:00.000-08:00

The barefoot running craze came in the wake of the popular book by Christopher McDougall, entitled, Born to Run. The author took reference to the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico who ran long distances barefoot. To be fare, speaking as a shoe historian, indigenous populations did not have the craft nor know how to make shoes to last and so running barefoot was a necessity which we will never know whether having running shoes available then would have changed the face of history. So his logic is somewhat flawed.

However this disappointment with technology came at a time when many people were generally disillusioned by the factious claims of manufactures (and scientists) that expensive sports shoes were good for you. The absence of record breaking performances at the Olympics confirmed to many: ‘shoes do not maketh the athlete’. In a bid to overcome this human failing many runners chose to avoid full fashion designer sports gear in preference for minimalist footwear. Others abandoned footwear altogether to run au, naturelle (feet, that is).

An elementary understanding of human locomotion confirms the difference between walking and running cycles. On flat surfaces heel strike is perfectly normal up until middle distance running where forefoot contact then supersedes heel contact. Things become slightly more complex over uneven and tilted surfaces. Traditionally the design of athletic footwear (up to running up to middle distance) has included a heel whereas sprinting shoes have no heel. The current barefoot running craze is driven by shoe companies crossing the barrier and looking to develop new markets for their products using new polymer technology. Lighter and more durable foot gloves are challenging the traditional shoe.

In a study published a few years ago by a Harvard professor (Daniel Lieberman), he looked at runners who ran with or without shoes. The collected data indicated barefoot endurance runners often landed on the fore-foot before bringing down the heel, while shod runners mostly had a rear-foot strike. They concluded raised and cushioned heels in modern running shoes may account for this running gait. Further analysis suggested barefoot runners generated less impact with forefoot strike than rear-foot strikers in shoes and the former had a springier step which implied more efficient use calf and foot muscles. Researchers were clear however the evidence did not suggest barefoot running suffered fewer injuries.
More recently another Harvard academic (Irene Davis ), reported her latest findings and according to Davis, avoiding heel contact during running can help reduce shock related injuries when wearing barefoot style shoes. The underlying hypothesis is wearing heeled sport shoes introduces an artificial ‘heel strike phase’ when the weight bearing limb is subjected to repeated high impact forces (the equivalent to two to three times body weight) and hence potential for repetitive injury.

In another injury, function and rehabilitation study published in the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, researchers compared barefoot running to wearing running shoes and concluded wearing running shoes was seen to increase strain on weight bearing joints i.e. hip, knee and ankle joints. Disproportionately large increases were observed in the hip internal rotation torque (54%); and in the knee flexion (36%); and knee varus torques (38%) when running in running shoes compared with barefoot. Researchers were also surprised to note knee torque was higher in running shoes than values recorded in a previous study to determine knee torque during high-heeled shoes during walking. The authors believe these findings confirm the typical construction of modern-day running shoes provides good support and protection of the foot but also increases stress on the lower extremity weight bearing joints. Researchers believe this may be due to the elevated heel of the running shoe combined with the increased material under the medial arch.

For some these scientific studies are pretty convincing but it is important to know the test conditions for each research project, in particular to the claims made by the authors. Pressure analysis in situ (in viva) is complex and most studies involve (in vitro) or laboratory testing, usually on a treadmill. This can make extrapolation difficult. Most of the gait studies used involve small numbers and are not independent studies (sponsored by footwear companies) which further complicates the published findings. So the jury is still out.

However running across hard surfaces increases the risk of injury from sharp objects like broken glass or discarded needles etc. which would suggest a protective foot cover as an intelligent precautionary measure. Contrary to market rhetoric shoes do not enhance performance enhance and whilst we may be born to run (barefoot), sadly the ravages of age, illness and hard surfaces mean our choices are restricted. As we age and older adults take up walking and jogging it makes good sense to protect the feet from serendipitous injuries because of impaired immune systems and compromised circulation and nerve supplies. All of which can compromise life style disease such as diabetes. To that effect shoes which comfortably fit the foot and are appropriate to use over hard surfaces and duration would seem to make good sense.

Foot note
The American Council on Exercise (ACE), is North America's leading authority on fitness and the world's largest nonprofit fitness certification, education and training organization. The Council recently announced the results of a small, independent study conducted at the University of Wisconsin, La Crosse, Exercise and Health Program on sock-style shoes. The study found that while barefoot style shoes may be beneficial for some who suffer from chronic running injuries, they can pose additional risks if runners who do not adopt their correct foot-to-ground strike style.

Common leg injuries
Stress Fractures
Endurance athletes suffer stress fractures in the hip, the femur (thigh), tibia (shin) and feet. They are due to the repetitive impact and rotation caused by contraction of the muscles attached to them.

Compartment Syndrome
Exercise induced compartment syndrome is a condition that causes pain over the front and outer edge of the leg with activity e.g. Anterior Compartment Syndrome Posterior Shin Splints describes pain on the inner side of your leg, right where the calf muscle meets the big shin bone. If the pain is severe a stress fracture in the tibia may be present.

Ankle Sprain
Ankle sprains are common injuries that runners experience. Early recognition and treatment of this problem will help speed your recovery from ankle ligament injuries.

Achilles Tendonitis
Achilles tendonitis is a painful condition of the tendon in the back of the ankle. Left untreated, Achilles tendonitis can lead to an increased risk of Achilles tendon rupture.

Arch Pain
Arch pain is a common foot complaint. Repetitive strain often causes inflammation and a burning sensation under the arch of the foot. Treatment of arch pain often consists of adaptive footwear and inserts (orthoses).

Plantar Fasciitis
Plantar fasciitis is a major cause of heel pain due to inflammation to micro tears of the plantar fascia along the base of the foot. A tight, inflamed plantar fascia can cause pain when walking or running, and be found in conjunction with a heel spur.

Delayed supination
Pronation is a normal movement of the subtalar joint through the gait cycle. When this motion becomes prolonged, delayed supination can cause a change in normal mechanics of the gait cycle. Shoes and orthoses to reduce full range joint motion can be help reduced associated symptoms.

If you have any of these symptoms then please consult your own physician.

Adrian Quist, The godfather of designer trainers

2011-12-26T19:54:00.000-08:00

The word sneaker was first used in 1875 and referred to an early croquet shoe, which was developed in the US. The modern sneaker made its appearance in 1917, with brown canvas tops and black rubber soles. Its manufacturer, the National India Rubber Company, first called the creation Peds, However the name was already registered for another product, so the "P" was traded for a "K" (for "kids"), making Keds. By the 1950s sneakers became associated with the merging teenage leisure market. They were cheap, hardwearing and suitable for sport and leisure activities such as dancing. Worn by high school students around the world they soon became the icons of youthful rebellion. Whilst their older sisters wore stilettos, the young fry were doing it in canvas topped shoes. Keds for girls and chucks for boys. Soon sneaker sole patterns were changing and. the vogue for circles and squares in the 60s was replaced by trendy herringbone patterns, in the seventies. Herringbone was the brainchild of Australian tennis player, Adrian Quist. He must have had something because he was the left-court half of the great Australian doubles team of Bromwich and Quist, They won titles in Australian, the U.S. doubles and, Wimbledon, before and after the war. The function of ridged patterns on the sole of shoes is to increase traction and help with stability. This is critical on soft surfaces when a tennis player to weightbearing on one foot while turn their body. In a time before synthetic polymers, ridged patterns would be the only means of performance enhancement. The Dunlop Volley was introduced in 1939 and has sold more than 24-million pairs as the evergreen of tennis shoes. When Quist went to America, he saw a boating shoe with a very unusual sole pattern. He convinced Dunlop, to put the sole onto a canvas shoe and the rest as they say is history. Sport crossover to fashion is common but seldom lasts longer than a short period. The kids in the seventies took to the green shoe with the herringbone sole even although it had lost a bit of market lead with the tennis fraternity. Despite being replaced in the eighties by grids of squares the Dunlop Volley continues to be popular. Not long after outsole designs began to incorporate manufactures logos and or fashion dashes distinctive to the makers. By the 1970's keeping fit set in motion a movement which affected all ages. Shoes needed to match the outfit and a hungry market was created. To keep demand high, the giants like Adidas, Puma and Nike produced what were virtually fashion ranges of sports shoes. This remains a major industry worldwide.

Smart football boots: New order

2011-09-30T09:02:00.000-07:00

The adizero f50 has been dubbed the intelligent football boot and is powered by adidas miCoach . According to adidas the electronic soccer shoe tracks and uploads performance data to help improve the players performance. The boots have a cavity in the outsole unit which houses the miCoach SPEED_CELL™, which in turn captures 360° movement and measures key performance metrics including speed, average speed (recorded every second), maximum speed (recorded every five seconds), number of sprints, distance, distance at high intensity levels, steps and stride rates. On-board memory stores all the measurements during your game or training for up to seven hours and then wirelessly transmits the on pitch performance data to a tablet, PC or MAC. Other adidas technologies built in to the new shoe include the Sprintweb, which provides stability during high speed movements, Sprintskin, a synthetic lightweight layer to reduce the weight of the shie and Sprintframe, which uses geometrics and a new stud construction to balance between lightweight and stability.

The adizero f50 boots come with a Speed Cell™ and a smart device dongle miCoach CONNECT for iPod and iPhone as well as the miCoach CONNECT for PC / MAC. The boots weighs 165g and costs €245 ($330) and will be available at adidas retail outlets and specialist stores worldwide from November.

Adipure Trainers:adidas following the leaders

2011-08-25T21:18:00.000-07:00

Adidas have entered the barfoot running race with the release of their first "barefoot" training shoe. Called, Adipure Trainers, it was designed to mimic the experience of exercising barefoot and serves as a cross between a glove for the feet and a traditional shoe. Adidas hopes to expand into the U.S. where fanatical runners and gym-goers love the minimum footwear. From a corporate perspective barefoot shoes make up a tiny fraction of the $22 billion U.S. athletic shoe industry, but it is one of the fast-growing categories. Sales have more than doubled in the past year to roughly $750 million, according to SportsOneSource. The practice of running in barefoot has not been without controversy with a significant number of barefoot shoe wearers reporting injuries. Manufacturers encourage runners to gradually make the switch form tradional runners to barefoot shoes. Rival, Nike is the world's biggest athletic company and has roughly 65 percent of the market. Vibram has about 10 percent of the market with its Five-Finger shoe, which encases each toe separately and has come to define the style.

Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons Annual Symposium: Barefoot running

2011-08-05T20:55:00.000-07:00

Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons Annual Symposium at the Burswood Convention Centre. Here is the conference blog

Nike Hyperfuse: Street wise baskekball kicks

2011-08-01T04:01:00.000-07:00

When Nike designers discovered Chinese street basketball players wear anything to withstand brutal outdoor heat and protect them from the hard asphalt underfoot. They devloped a hardwearing composite called Hyperfuse, then discovered the new material gave extra vibrant colours whenmixed with dyes. Keep to capitalise on the popularity of the game in China they produced Air Max 90 and the Air Force in Hyperfuse. According to Nike Nike Hyperfuse composite system offers a superior stability layer, a breathable mesh layer, and a durable outer skin layer that combine to give footwear new strength, breathability and lightweight (at roughly 12.5 ounces for a size 9). The manufacture of Nike Hyperfuse has changed the way footwear is made. Hyperfuse “fuses” its distinct layers into a composite using a unique manufacturing method, eliminating the need to manually stitch together footwear materials.

Heel Less Hokas gains a following

2011-06-13T06:56:00.001-07:00

The trend for heel less shoes continues with the rise in popularity of bulkier runner shoes.

French-designed, Hokas running shoes are built for comfort with a full 40 millimeters (more than 1.5 inches) of cushioning between your foot and the ground. Most standard running shoes have a sole about 24 millimeters (less than an inch) high in the heel and 12 millimeters in the toe. The shoes do look large and clunky, compared to other runners but road tests indicate they feel just the opposite. Designers have utilized a super-lightweight material in the sole, which despite being bulkier weigh 9 ounce which is less than convential running shoes. According to the manufacture Hokas running shoes give runners 30 percent more surface area which they believe help reduce injury. The "clown shoes/moon boots" are gaining popularity, with endorsements from Karl Meltzer (ultrarunner), and Dave Mackey (trail runner).

New Balance: Custom made shoes

2011-05-23T00:31:00.000-07:00

New Balance started in the early 1900s as a manufacturer of arch supports and orthopedic shoes. By the 1970s the company was focusing on athletic shoes. Twenty-five percent of the shoes New Balance sells in the United States are made domestically. They opened the Maine plants in Skowhegan and Norridgewock in 1982; and Norway in 1997. Twenty-five percent of the shoes New Balance sells in the United States are made domestically. New Balance employs more than 4,000 people worldwide. According to the company labor costs at the U.S. plants are more than 13 times higher than overseas, but the domestic plants are more productive. Manufacturing techniques developed by Toyota Motor Corp are used to produce shoes in 70 minutes from start to finish. The US domestic plants manufacture 7 million pairs of shoes yearly, roughly 25 percent of the shoes the company sells in North America. Shoes are put together on an assembly line with 32 stations. Leather is first cut leather into shapes. Next, stitchers sew pieces together before passing them on. Machines wrap the shoes over a last (this sets the size and fit), and workers attached the soles. "Single piece flow" manufacturing also lets New Balance ship shoes on the same day they are made, meaning less wait time for customers, a competitive advantage in North America. According to experts these are the last three manufacturing plants in the United States.
In April, New Balance launched a custom-made shoe program, allowing consumers to design their own shoes online. Buyers can pick from different colours (and mix-and-match colours) and order custom embroideries. New Balance makes and ships the custom shoes immediately so they arrive anywhere in the country in four to eight days. New Balance owns brands including Dunham, PF Flyers, Warrior and Brine. According to SportsOneSource, in 2010 Nike and its subsidiary Jordan had roughly 45 percent market share, Skechers had 6.4 percent and New Balance had 5.8 percent.

Dr Irene Davis talks barefoot running

2011-04-27T02:44:00.000-07:00

Argument for no shoes

2011-04-26T01:45:00.000-07:00

According to Dr Irene Davis of Harvard Medical School running barefoot can be more beneficial than running in heavily cushioned running shoes. At the 2011, Australasian Podiatry Conference in Melbourne she reported her latest research findings and according to the expert avoiding heel contact during running helps reduce shock injuries. Davis has been studying both barefoot running and minimal footwear running, which uses a type of running shoe almost like a glove for the foot, but with a thin layer of rubber on the bottom. These shoes give the foot its full range of natural movement, but protect the sole from stones or extreme surface temperatures. In the first study of its kind, published in Nature.com in 2010, Davis and co-authors tested their theories people who had never worn running shoes before. When they the runners in Kenya, they found unshod runners landed on the ball of their feet (not the heel). Davis believes heel strike running in shoes is detrimental because of the high impact stresses during heel strike; running on the ball of the foot helps reduce impact stresses. Unfortunately these studies are as yet incomplete and the jury remains out with strong counter claims from research sponsored by the sport shoe industry.

(sic According to Human Walking by Inman, Ralston and Todd – normal gait would start with heel strike but that pattern changes with middle distance running when heel strike is obviated.) Davis and co., may be comparing middle distance runners with joggers in which case that would be two completely different models. Joggers and particularly slow joggers may need the protection cushioned shoes provide, whereas those running closer to middle distance speeds might benefit from heel less sports shoes. More research is required.

Symposium of the Training Shoe: worth a visit

2011-03-23T20:55:00.001-07:00

Students of fashion, photography and sociology and kick’s enthusiasts can learn all about the artistic, social, cultural, historical and industrial significance of the training shoe at an unusual symposium being held at the Guildhall, Northampton. Symposium speakers will include V&A curator of contemporary programs Ligaya Salazar who will be in conversation with sneaker connoisseur Kish Kash, and Thomas Turner of Birkbeck College talking about the social and cultural significance of sports shoes through the nineteenth and twentieth century and eminent researchers from the University of Sheffield exploring how trainers made the transition to the street and how wearing them can change people's identities. The event is part of Northampton Borough Council museums spring program which aims to inform, entertain and educate. The Symposium of the Training Shoe takes place at The Guildhall on Saturday 2 April from 10am to 4.30pm and will be followed by a private viewing of the Sneaker Peak exhibition currently showing at Northampton Museum and Art Gallery.

Tickets for the event cost £7.50 for students, £20 for others, and include lunch, the private viewing and evening refreshments.

For more information about the symposium or to reserve a place contact the museum on 01604 837632/838111

Things you can do with technology

2011-02-09T04:05:00.001-08:00

"If the shoe fits, wear it." Benno Nigg

2011-01-28T15:35:00.001-08:00

Dr. Benno Nigg (Human Performance Lab) has a new book out (If the shoe fits) and according to the acknowledged expert he declares, ‘increasingly expensive accessories make almost no difference to running injury rates.’ Nigg admits foot orthotic industry is now a billion-dollar industry, but accepts it is still unclear how they work and how they correct mechanical-alignments such as shin splints, knee and foot pain. The author concludes prescribers cannot yet predict the effect of a given foot orthoses. The biomechanist believes there is a correlation between what an individual finds comfortable and the insock’s ability to prevent or alleviate patho-mechanical problems. However when it comes to buying runners buy what feels good. Discerning consumers should not be dazzled by high-tech claims telling you which shoes will complement your gait. Despite the development of foot orthotic industry in the last thirty years the frequency of running injury has not substantially changed. He concurs research supports the biggest predictor of injury is intensity and not the shoes that are worn.

Custom Made Shoes

2011-01-10T03:14:00.000-08:00

NBA ban Concept 1

2010-10-22T07:17:00.000-07:00

The National Basketball Association (NBA) has decided to ban Concept 1 (Athletic Propulsion Labs ) during matches because they believe the shoes give players an unfair edge. Athletic Propulsion labs was formed in 2009 with a focus on producing and manufacturing high end innovative athletic footwear. The company produced new technology, Load ‘N Launch, which allows athletes to jump higher. According to the manufacturer their patent pending device works with the sole of the shoe to compress large amounts of energy and then when the player takes off using the front of their foot, the device acts as a spring and propels them upwards. The shoe also uses a thermoplastic urethane shank to stabilise the foot and transfer energy. Test results indicate the wearer can jump an average increase of 3.5 inches higher. The company is now looking to come out with newer and more innovative technology in different sports.

Minimalist shoes:Li-Ning Sports USA take on the heavyweights

2010-10-17T16:38:00.001-07:00

Chinese sport company Li-Ning has seen sales in recent years pass every competitor in China, except Nike. Now the company has decided to take on its main opponent by trading in the US. Li-Ning Sports USA has launched itself into the running-shoe market of mainland North America. Both companies have done well in the last financial year and whilst Li-Ning Sports USA is still a minnow by comparison to Nike they hope to overtake them one day. Stealth is the name of the game and Li-Ning Sports USA see a window with minimalist (lightweight) shoes. Li-Ning Sports USA have launched a 7 ounce, running shoe called "The Fremont." The new shoe retails at $85 US and is available at selected stores. The hope is the Chinese company will build up a loyal following among runners and intend to promote the new Fremont at the The Running Event Conference, in Austin, Texas, this November. Curently the best selling minimalist shoes are Nike Free Run, Saucony Kinvara, New Balance 101, and Vibram.

Toning shoes are the new cross trainer

2010-06-26T19:22:00.000-07:00

Market researcher NPD Group Inc., reported that sales of women's fashion footwear have increased by double-digits this spring compared to the same three-month period a year ago. For the three-month period ending in April 2010, women's shoe sales were up 24 percent from the same period a year ago. The same three-month period between 2008 and 2009 saw a 5 percent drop. Men's shoes are up 8 percent during the same period and kid's shoes, 2 percent. The trend is considered by some experts to herald the return of the consumer to purchasing. Closer analysis reveals sales of casual shoes are up 25 percent, boots are up 30 percent, and walking shoes including toning and shaping shoes are up over 100 percent. Toning shoes are the latest trend in athletic footwear and produced by a growing number of athletic footwear makers.

Toning shoes are likely to replace cross trainers as the new best seller in ath leisurewear. To date ,Nike (the largest athletic footwear and apparel company in the U.S.), has sidestepped the toning trend to relaunch the Nike Free training shoe. According to the manufacturer this is footwear that provides the sensation of being almost barefoot. See the video below for more information (sic when I studied gait analysis heel strike was normal in barefoot walking and forefoot contact first was abnormal – my how we have evolved :-)).

Run bareboot - Less torque

2010-06-06T20:27:00.000-07:00

According to a recent paper published in the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation it is easier on the knees and ankles to walk in high heels than jog in running shoes. An injury, function and rehabilitation study was conducted on 68 (31 male: 37 female) young adult runners (All of the runners regularly ran at least 15 miles a week and had no previous history of musculoskeletal injury). Each runner was given a pair of running shoes and asked to run at a comfortable running pace on a treadmill after a warm-up period. This was video taped. When the results were compared to barefoot running, wearing running shoes was seen to increase strain on weight bearing joints i.e. hip, knee and ankle joints. Disproportionately large increases were observed in the hip internal rotation torque (54%); and in the knee flexion (36%); and knee varus torques (38%) when running in running shoes compared with barefoot. Researchers were also surprised to note knee torque was higher in running shoes than values recorded in a previous study to determine knee torque during high-heeled shoes during walking. The authors believe these findings confirm the typical construction of modern-day running shoes provides good support and protection of the foot but also increase stress on the lower extremity weight bearing joints. Researchers believe this may be due to the elevated heel of the running shoe combined with the increased material under the medial arch.

Reference
Kerrigan D C, Franz JR, Keenan GS, Dicharry J, Croce UD, and Wilder RP. The Effect of Running Shoes on Lower Extremity Joint Torques (2009) American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Elsevier Volume 1, 12. Pp1058- 1063.

Fastest man on two feet or shoes?

2009-08-17T16:59:00.000-07:00

Usain 'Lightning' Bolt has shattered his own world record and delivered a stunning first place finish in the 100m at the Olympic Stadium in Berlin recently. The Jamaican sprinter clocked the fastest time ever recorded for the 100m race at 9.58 seconds wearing his PUMA, custom-designed Theseus Pro sprint spike. The PUMA YAAM are now the fastest shoes in the world. This sprint spike was developed by a team of PUMA designers and technicians who studied and measured Bolt's stride and foot form. They created a custom-made sprint spike to suit the sprinter’s body kinetics. Manufacturer’s claims the shoes contain a lightweight carbon plate to add speed and power might be construed as ‘performance enhancing’ footwear which is not ‘officially’ allowed. Since the introduction of computerised timing the world record has never before been broken by such a big margin and since record breaking occurrences have been few and far between in the last decade, questions may be asked.

23: The history of a shoe: Premier

2009-04-05T16:48:00.000-07:00

The long awaited movie and book 23: The Street History of a Shoe by A.R. Shaw is about to be released. 23 is an Air Jordan documentary about the social, political, and economic phenomenon from the perspective of people who wear them. Premier in Atlanta on 23rd April.

Beno Nigg's Future of shoes

2009-04-05T16:32:00.000-07:00

Beno Nigg on the Future of Footwear

Do expensive trainers prevent injury?

2009-03-11T22:05:00.000-07:00

Researchers at the University of Newcastle have found no scientific evidence to support claims that commonly recommended running shoes prevent injuries in runners. This is rather well known and not a new revelation by any means. The basic assumption is shoes (by themself) prevent injuries but there is certainly no evidence to prove this. Common sense would suggest a good (comfortable) pair of sport shoes capable of enduring the stresses of a prolonged activity would allow the foot to function at optimal efficiency. This is the basic premise we all hold true but manufacturers do tend to overplay this with their marketing rhetoric. Claims made by sports shoes manufacturers usually relate to patented materials or systems strategically incorporated within the shoe design. In the absence of evidence based outcomes however advertisers are now ‘cooling their heels’ about overstating their claims for their shoes. Particularly since there is increasing evidence to support some additions to shoes are likely to contribute to injury. Independent surveys from around the world consistently reinforce budget shoes match more expensive shoes in terms of structure and make up. Research from the Institute of Motion Analysis & Research, University of Dundee would support cheap sport shoes are as good as more extensive brands. Under test conditions shoe properties vary with brands and for different areas of the foot but overall shoes exhibit similar characteristics regardless of brand or price. The Dundee researchers concluded when buying sport shoes the key is to find a pair of shoes that fit the foot (comfortable) and ignore the price. ‘Cheap sports shoes are a false economy’ is a fallacy promulgated by quality shoe retailers. I have been involved in a couple of research surveys of marathon runners and reported injuries. The findings were consistent and runners wearing cheaper shoes were less likely to report injury and more likely to replace worn shoes more frequently. The vast majority of sport shoes are sold for fashion and not sport, manufacturer’s priority is to produce a shoe that looks good on the streets with less emphasis of making athletes’ feet comfortable on the track. The most important factor is to buy a shoe that is comfortable and designed for the particular activity you wish to put it too. Care and maintenance are important and worn shoes need to be replaced. The midsole layer of a shoe provides the cushioning and stability and this area usually wears out before the outsole shows major signs of wear. Once a shoe looses its functional stability this increases the risk of stress and subsequent injury. Running shoes should be replaced approximately every 350-550 miles depending on your running style, body weight, and the surface on which you run. For runners who log 25 miles per week shoes should be replaced every three to four months. Frequent runners should rotate their shoes.

Bespoke Foot Orthoses: CAD/CAM

2009-02-11T21:37:00.001-08:00

Foot orthoses come in different types from simple insoles to biomechanically calculated platforms to help stabilise the foot during phases of walking. In recent years there has been a sizable industry grown around the manufacture and prescription of the latter which is now estimated at $30 million US per anum. Prescribed foot orthoses often referred to as function foot orthoses are used by sports specialists, surgeons, physiotherapists and podiatrists and prices vary from $20 to $300 per pair depending on the type, time spend and materials used. Over the counter foot orthoses are often as effective as bespoke varieties but due to the material combinations may not always last quite so long. Conditions definitely apply. For over a decade the manufacture of foot orthoses has involved Computer Numerical Controlled(CNC) systems where CAD/CAM software programs are used to produce a computer file that is interpreted to extract the commands needed to operate a particular machine, and then loaded into the CNC machines for production which involes a complex series of steps needed to produce in this case a foot orthoses. CAD software produces 3D scanned design data which can be manipulated to add a range of models, add-ons and cut-outs or corrections to the foot mould. Many companies which supply bespoke foot orthoses use the technology to increase their production. The established method of producing bespoke foot orthoses was both time consuming and prone to human error. After physical examination of the leg and foot, technicians took plaster of Paris moulds of the feet set in a reference position. These negative casts are then filled with setting plaster before drying at hot temperatures. When the foot models are completely dried high temperature plastics are melted over the prepared cast before trimming. The process of creating unique prescriptions for patients suffering from various foot and joint ailments will take anything from 3 days to three weeks to complete. A primary advantage of CAD/CAM manufacture is the time reduced in producing quality foot orthoses as providing prescribed quality foot orthoses in a timely fashion translates well to high profits. Turnaround time is extremely important in the bespoke foot orthotic business. Delcam's OrthoModel , is a new software specifically for modelling and machining custom foot orthoses. Once the information is input into the OrthoModel CAD software, the information is transfered to the CAM component OrthoMill and routed to complete the milling process. Top covers and other finishes are added once the foot orthoses have been milled. Delcam Crispin is a UK based company founded in 1965 and their software includes a series of menus which incorporate the biomechanical terminology used by the industry to describe the various features of the foot orthosis.

Measures - Unit Coverter: Neuwert Media

2009-02-10T22:09:00.000-08:00

If you have an iPhone and want to put it to good use when buying shoes you might like to get the 99 cent "Measures - Unit Converter. " Now available at iTunes App Store this useful app will convert just about anything including shoe sizes. U.S., European, Mexican, Japanese, UK, and Australian. Women's sizes available for conversion range from U.S. 5-14, and men's conversions are available for U.S. sizes 3-14. "Measures" was created by Neuwert Media.

Interesting site
Shoe Size and Conversion Charts

Chuck Taylor - the true story

2008-12-09T15:49:00.001-08:00

netizens

Aamidor A., 2006 Chuck Taylor, All Star: The True Story of the Man Behind the Most Famous Athletic Shoe in History .

This is an asset to any book collection on footwear.

Art & Sole: Contemporary Sneaker Art & Design

2008-12-05T14:06:00.000-08:00

Art & Sole: Contemporary Sneaker Art & Design by Nathan Gale (Intercity)

This is a beautiful new book dedicated to sneakers and provides an insiders view into a growing subculture. The book covers two main areas i.e. "Sneakers & Art" and "Art & Sneakers". "Sneakers & Art" is a showcase of examples where there has been a successful collaboration between artists and sneaker manufacturers. The second part, "Sneakers & Art" explores how consumer trends in casual foot attire has become mainstream art. The book is lavishly illustrated throughout amazingly with hundreds of customized sneakers, many of which were produced in extremely limited runs, and all of which appear to be in spotless condition.

A must for all sneakerheads but also a valuable insight into the social significance that shoes play in the Millennials' psyche.

toeslayer

adidas: shoes for the elite

2008-09-22T18:41:00.000-07:00

The company have come a long way from their origins in Germany when Adi Dassler made his first pair of canvas trainers on the kitchen table in 1920. The shoe making brothers were dedicated to produce quality and durable footwear that met the needs of the sportsperson as well as protect them from injury. Dassler’s sports shoes soon found favour with the elite athletes. In 1925 he invented screw-in studs for soccer shoes and spiked running shoes which took off and soon Adi Dassler was making different shoes for the different athletic events using all manner of materials to reduce the weight of his shoes. It was the 1928 Olympics in Amsterdam that first saw athletes wearing Dassler’s shoes. The debut of adidas products in the Olympic stage was an immediate success, with Karoline ‘Lina’ Radke-Batschauer wearing adidas spikes, winning gold in the first ever women's 800-meter competition in world record time. In 1932 Arthur Jonath took bronze in the 100 m wearing Dassler’s shoes in Los Angles. It was the 1936 Olympics (Berlin) when Jesse Owens wore Dassler’s hand made spikes in his record breaking performances at the Berlin Olympics that would eventually make the association and established the need for dedicated sport shoes. In the ensuing Olympiads records fell with the elite athletes wearing adidas shoes. In 1948, Emil ``Czech Locomotive," Zatopek ran to gold in the 10,000m and Silver in the 5,000m wearing Dassler's lightweight shoes. In the same year, ``adidas'' was registered as the brand with the ``Three Stripes." The adidas sports bag was introduced in 1952 and the company started to be promoted at the Melbourne Olympics in 1956. In 1960 the company introduced the adidas Rom training shoe to commemorate the Olympic Games in Rome and the shoes became an evergreen life style seller. At the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, 80%of all the athletes wore the three-stripe shoes. At the games the "Tokyo 64" was launched as the lightest sports shoe weighing just 135 grams. The trifoil apparel became available in 1967 and a year later adidas was the first company in the world to produce injection-moulded multi-stud soles of polyurethane. To match the jogging craze adidas released the "Achill" jogging shoe. In 1972 Munich, the adidas trefoil logo was launched and Heide Rosendahl was a regular tester for adidas and proved her versatility by winning the women's long jump gold, the silver in the pentathlon, and another gold with the 4x100m Relay. New adidas products included the ``suction cup'' outsole pattern and the wrapped edges of sprint spikes. At Seoul (1988) Steffi Graf defeated Gabriela Sabatini in the female tennis final wearing adidas shoes. By the Summer Games in Los Angeles, 124 out of 140 nations competed in adidas attire with 259 medals won in products with the Three Stripes. In Sydney (2000) adidas represented 26 of the 28 sports and more than 3,000 athletes wore adidas attire. The succuss of the games in Sydney left adidas-Salomon´s sales with a new record level in 2000 reaching € 5.8 billion. adidas was the official sportswear partner of the Beijing Olympics and provided its products to over 3,000 athletes, 16 National Olympic Committees (NOCs), 214 country federations, and roughly 100,000 volunteers and competition staff. This included the provision of over 500,000 units of sporting equipment, including 43 different types of shoes.

New shoes seen around the Bird’s Nest

2008-09-03T18:50:00.000-07:00

Not all new shoe innovations work and when the giant of the industry experienced a particular disaster rarely do they continue with that line. This happened recently to adidas with equestrian boots. Another back to the drawing board was when the Three Stripes failed to make shoes for high jumping, U.S. Gold medallist, Richard ‘Dick’ Fosbury had to abandon his new shoes because they were too slippery for the event. Failure to achieve optimum performance may be one good reason why companies have become more circumspect about the potential of their new shoes on the block. Only after the medals are won are we likely to seen and hear of the footwear marvels which contributed. The Beijing Olympics was a real watershed separating the sheep from the goats when it came to shoes for champions. It appears little separates the products of the industries leaders and to quote Seinfeld, it’s all a bit, “same old same old.” What is new is athletes sponsored by companies and contractually obligated to wear their sponsor’s shoes are now allowed to wear their preferred footwear for heats provided they appear suitable shod in their sponsor’s shoes at photo-opportunities and official ceremonies. Although companies like Adidas-Salomon and Nike have their preferred sports such as running, basketball, tennis and training they also target other popular sports with their new range of footwear.

Archery
Based on feedback from the world’s top archers shoes were designed to help the athlete execute precise use of a bow and arrow. Like golfers archers anchor their bodies to control breathing as they aim at a target. An archer’s stance is the foundation for a well-placed shot and it is important to have a wide base of gait to stabilise the body’s centre of gravity; shoe cleats that can grip grass or synthetic turf; and an elevated heel. Archers shoes have three main criteria i.e. lightweight, stable and comfortable. adidas brought out the adiStar shoe which allows the archer to feel the ground. The shoe’s high top design gives the psychological feeling of stability whilst offering a large footprint to give a stable stance. The single layer mesh upper (coincidently called the Bird’s Nest) with perforated tongue and collar allows air to circulate around the foot. The shoes are lightweight weighing 24.4 oz and the 3-Stripes® was made from welded flexible thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU) to provide added mid foot support. Rivals Nike introduced the Akribis archery shoe with an Astrograbber outsole.

Athletics
Sport shoes must not give athletes an unfair advantage over other competitors but should be able to accommodate the biomechanics of the event and individual. From walking to middle distance running, the design of the sport shoe relates to a normal walking cycle, which starts with heel strike and finishes with toe off. In sprinting, heel strike is omitted as the ball of the foot provides contact point and pivot. This means there is often a significant difference in the appearance of training shoes from competition shoes. Sprinting shoes for example there is no raised heel. Track athletes wear tight fitting, lightweight, robust shoes with spiked soles from the metatarsal heads to the toes. The spikes give the runner grip against the ground allowing them to propel forwards reaching speeds up to 40km/h (25mph). Spikes need to be compatible with artificial tracks if optimal traction is to be achieved. New developments in artificial tracks and clever use of polymer technology have given track athletes optimally efficient footwear, suffice it is the skill of the athlete that wins events and not the shoes they wear. Most athletes adjust their shoes to meet specific requirements of their sport.

High jumpers
They commonly wear two different shoes during competition. They may wear a high pump shoe with heel spikes on their take off foot whilst sporting a training shoe on the other.

Road runners
In 1960 Olympics (Rome), the marathon was won by the Ethiopian Abebe Bikila, the first black African to win an Olympic title and he did it running, barefoot. Bikila won by more than half a minute in a world best. Four years later he repeated his victory setting a new world record but this time, wearing shoes. Abede Bikila wore thin soled runners little more than two pieces of cardboard. He warmed down with a series of brisk exercises afterwards while he waited for the remainder of the field to reach the stadium. Modern road runners need shoes to protect the feet from incessant pounding over hard surfaces. Footwear must fit comfortably, wear well and give the runner support against the hard concrete competition surfaces. Polyurethane materials and gases are frequently incorporated into shoe sole design to dampen peak pressures. Road running shoes incorporate heel lifts. Although walking events differ from road running, athletes wear the same style shoes. A popular choice in Beijing was the Nike LunaRacer which are lightweight (5.5 ounces) shoes and cushioned with Lunarlite foam (a special rubber mixed with foam made from recycled polyester). The Nike LunaRacer features Flywire technology in the upper. Asics introduced "wet grip soles" imbedded with rice husks. The brainwave came from a collaboration with former marathoner Hitoshi Mimura. A further feature a ventilation system which is sand- and dust-resistant to reduce foot irritation. The Finnish athlete, Lasse Viren ran the 5,000 and 10,000m at the Munich Olympics (XXth Olympiad) and wore asic shoes. Four years later he celebrated his gold medal victory of the 10,000m in Montreal with a barefoot lap of honour holding aloft his winning shoes. This was considered to be the first real endorsement of sport shoes by an athlete and heralded the end of the status of the amateur.

Baseball boots
Baseball boots are similar in style to the old soccer boots. Traction is increased with screw-in plates (heel and toe) and metal and plastic types are chosen depending on playing surfaces.

Basketball
Basketball players wear over the ankle boots (high tops) with protective ankle padding. Traction is important and the synthetic soles have rough surfaces. Converse were the company that invented the basketball shoe. Chuck Taylor All Stars were canvas shoe invented around 1920 by a hoosier and shoe maker, called Marquis M. Converse. The uppers were originally made of canvas but now most boots are made in leathers. The company were quick to recognise the importance of sportsperson endorsement with Chuck Taylor and 'Chucks'. Fashion dashes were later incorporated which helped reinforce layovers. The rubber soled shoe gave the player some protection during landing, turning and take off. The Converse brand was established in 1908, and has built a reputation as 'America's Original Sports Company,'(TM). Converse have been part of the modern Olympics since 1936, when basketball was played for the first time as an official Olympic sport. In 1936, the U.S. men's team competed in Converse¨ Chuck Taylor¨ All Star¨ shoes, defeating Canada 19-8 on a clay court to win the gold medal. When Converse failed to innovate, adidas overtook them in the 1970s. In 1984, the U.S. men's basketball team again played in Converse and won the gold in the same year it served as the official footwear sponsor of the Olympic Games in Los Angeles. When Nike sponsored Michael Jordan they became the best selling basketball shoes in the US and Nike and adidas have been bitter rivals ever since. The emphasis for the Athens Olympics was to keep the temperature of the players’ feet down and so shoes were designed with air conditioning systems. In Beijing it was important to make lightweight shoes which were robust. Nike released the superlight (13 ounces) Nike Hyperdunk shoe series for the Olympics which was created by designer Eric Avar. At 18 % lighter than the average basketball shoe the company claim these were the lightest and strongest basketball shoes, ever. The Hyperdunk combines Flywire technology, with Lunarlite foam and Zoom Air in the heel. A small keyhole at the ankle ensures the upper stays with the leg for hard-angle cuts, and the flex grooves between each toe allow players to articulate and flex each toe for added stability, flexibility and comfort. Adidas continue to match these developments. Converse which is now a subsiduary of Nike have been associated with a rich heritage of legendary shoes such as ‘the Chuck Taylor All Star’(high top) , the Jack Purcell tennis shoe, and the One Star court shoe. John Edward "Jack" Purcell (1903 – 1991) was a world champion badminton player from Canada. In 1935 he designed a canvas and rubber badminton shoe for the B.F. Goodrich Company of Canada. Jack Purcell sneakers are still produced today by Converse. Although they still produce quality basketball shoes edorsed by key players the company continues to promote fashionable sport shoes. One frustration expressed by many female basketball players is the apparent gender disparity that exists with real basketball shoes only available in mens sizes. Many professional women basketball players wear men’s shoes, because they are superior. Companies are slowly beginning to acknowledge this frustration and cater better for women athlete's feet.

Beach Volleyball
Beach volleyball players do not wear shoes in competition but when in extreme temperatures or playing over coarse sand this does interfere with performances. Nike developed the Zesti beach volleyball sock which is made from a breathable, seamless fabric that protects the foot like a second skin and on the sole there are also moulded rubber cleats for protection and stability. The Zesti also features a split toe for balance. The Nike Zesti (Zesti meaning "Sun" in Greek) is made from a tightly knit seamless fabric that fits like a protective second skin is feather-light, breathable and impenetrable to sand. Thin weld seals keep the cleats securely under foot during critical cuts and dives.

Boxing
Boxers wear high cut lacing boots (12 holes) with thin flat soles, no heels and uppers made from soft leather. adidas boxing boots called Adidas Box Champ Speed II 2008 were introduced for the Olympics> The boots were welded together to prevent stitching and had mid soles made from die-cut ehtyl vinyl acetate (EVA) for added cushioning. Most sportsmen are superstiticious and boxers are no exception. After Henry Cooper lost a fight wearing shiny boots he refused to wear polished boots again and knocked down Cassius Clay (aka Mohamed Ali ) wearing unpolished boots. In the 60s, the World Champion Heavyweight boxer Willy Pastrano tied his wedding ring to his left bootlace for good luck.

Canoe shoes
Nike introduced Dynami shoes for canoeists. These had sticky rubber compound on the outsole to prevent slipping on a canoe’s wet floor. Midfoot and heel straps tie the shoe to the foot.

Crew windsurfing and sailing
Nike’s Synetairos feature a drainable neoprene upper and a synthetic abrasion-resistant panel on top that guards against the windsurf board’s foot straps. Synetairos (Greek for “Partner,”) is also worn by sailors and has a neoprene sleeve to reduce water retention. There is a fully moulded toe protection overlay. The shoes are lightweight with a midfoot strap and soles made from a wet rubber compound for sticky traction that is used in other water-based sports footwear.

Cycling
Just over a decade ago, a clip less pedal system was devised for cycling. Previous to this a toe clip and strap secured the foot to the pedal. These clips could create fatigue and pain on longer rides and the straps needed to be loosened before coming to a stop. Now the system utilizes cycling shoes with a cleat that snap into a clasp on the pedal. There are two versions: those with exposed cleats, called "cycling-only shoes", and those with cleats recessed in the bottom of the shoe and initially designed for mountain bikes. Cleats are positioned according to biomechanics as the foot requires to be held firmly in place during the pedal stroke. For maximum energy efficiency and prevention of injury, the cleat should be positioned with the ball of the foot centred over the pedal. Iliotibial band syndrome and inflammation of the medial patellofemoral ligament are the injuries most often associated with improper cleat positioning. Many clip less pedals incorporate 'floating' cleats which allow for rotation and lateral foot motion of the lower extremity on the pedal. Competitive cyclists appreciate the aerodynamic benefits of a narrow tread width (the distance between the centres of both pedals), which also guards against knee injury. To avoid forcing the knee to externally or internally rotate, the tread width requires to be approximately the width of the pelvic joints. Sometimes when cyclists have one leg longer than the other in which case specially made shoes require to be worn.

Equestrian boots
Nike's boot called the Ippeas (Greek for "rider") is another lightweight innovation made from leather and synthetics. In the tradition of riding boots the footwear offers traction and communication with the horse through a thin, high-abrasion synthetic rubber material on the side of the boot.

Fencing
The new Nike fencing shoe called the Ballestra followed consultation with 2004 and 2008 gold medallist, Mariel Zagunis and features air cushioning and extra foam in the heel to soften fencing lunges. The design team headed up by senior research biomechanist Jeff Pisciotta, took 18 months to develop shoe. Once shoe prototypes were developed fencers were invited to attend Nike’s Sport Research Lab in Beaverton, Oregon US and other labs in Germany, for further tests. Shoes were fitted with pressure-monitoring inserts comprising of 99 high-resolution sensors, capable of sampling at 250 samples per second. These sensors measured pressure, vertical force, timing, and contact area distribution. Force platforms where used to look at ground reaction forces between the foot and ground during various fencing actions. High-speed video, at up to 500 frames per second, was used in conjunction with the force platform and pressure inserts, to collect kinematics and joint angle information. Fencers were asked to go through the various motions associated with fencing, and biomechanical and sensory perception data were collected and processed to help inform further changes to the prototypes. The forces associated with each of the three major patterns of fencing i.e. lunge, advance, and retreat had to be addressed in the design of the shoe. Analysis revealed fencers placed up to 7 times body weight on their lead foot which would equate to the G force generated by a basketball player landing after a slam dunk. As a result the need for shock attenuation (cushioning) was a high priority in the new fencing shoes. The fencing action of ‘lunging’ caused significant sheer on the medial side of the shoe and the shell of the shoe required to dampen down peak impact forces on the heel area whilst providing optimal cushioning for the entire foot for comfort. The asymmetry of the sport caused the designers to ponder whether two separate shoes were required. However in mass production it is more economical to make symmetrically designed shoes often with the right and left shoes made in different factories and only paired in the box. In the end it was decided to make a shoe for the competitive fencer that was durable, lightweight, and affordable and the team stuck with a symmetrical design to reduce production, distributor, and retail costs. The basic structure of the Nike Ballestra is a fencing shoe with a seamless, leather upper incorporating a series of reinforcing webbing loops inside the upper to reinforce the shoe and support the foot inside. The leather is treated to be abrasion free and works in accord with the shoes cushioning. This is particularly useful in the trailing shoes which is subjected in the normal course of events to excessive sheer. The shoe has no sockliner which makes it overall lighter and also prevents unnecessary rubbing. The Ballestra is shaped to give a rocker action which helps spread pressure and impact force and the midsole contains a mixture of polyurethane shock absorbing materials to cushion against impact forces, resist compaction and loss of cushioning over the life of the shoe. The hard wearing outsole which is made from durable rubber compound wraps up on the medial side and covers the area of the first phalanx and the tip of the toe. This extension of the outsole works together with the upper to resist wear when the fencer is up on their toes, especially on the trailing foot as it rolls or drags during a lunge. Incorporated into the sole are various flex grooves that extend into the midsole and are scaled depending on shoe size so that they align with the areas of the foot that tend to flex when getting up on the forefoot area or when rolling toward the medial side of the trailing foot during a lunge. The flex grooves help the fencer feel for the piste without compromising cushioning. At the Beijing Games Margherita Granbassi wore a special pink and black version when she won the bronze medal.

Handball
Handball is like squash with players who hit a ball against a wall with their hands usually while wearing a special glove. The scoring is similar to volleyball. Players need a court shoe which supports rapid, secure and stable movement. Many handball players wear squash shoes. At Beijing adidas introduced the Stabil which had a carbon composite material in the logo trefoil to give the shoe added lateral support plus the adidas Stabil encases a supportive foot orthosis.

Hockey
Hockey players use soccer style shoes but more cleats. Depending on playing surfaces they may have as many as 60 moulded cleats on each sole for synthetic pitches. Goalkeepers are the only players permitted to touch the ball with their feet and wear 'kickers' or over-shoes. These have protective padding to protect the feet. A water resistant shoe is preferred when the game is played on a water-based surface. Hockey shoes are lightweight, with moulded EVA midsoles, which are integrated into the upper for maximum support and fit. Outsoles vary depending on whether the player is on synthetic surfaces, such as astro or turf. The uppers are made from lightweight synthetic mesh materials with shoe liners designed to distribute pressure over the foot surface and give stability and shock absorption. Some hockey shoes offer a combination of studs and blades for forward and lateral traction and thermal injected hell counters for added lateral stability. A reinforced toe box with scuff guard is preferred and padded tongue aids fit and comfort.

Judo
Although competition is in bare foot some people wear foot protectors in the form of padded slip over shoes to protect the fighter when delivering kicks to an opponent.

Kayakers
Kayaker’s feet rest on pegs inside the kayak braced against the sides of the hull for stability and balance. Most kayakers compete barefoot but Nike produced lightweight shoes for protection and traction. The Nike Grigoros were made from one piece of sticky rubber compound (recycled) and slip easily over the foot. There is a web and lug pattern on the sole for grip in the boat and on the dock while channels in between allow for water drainage. The anatomical, split-toe design provides natural movement of the foot on the boat’s pegs.

Rowing
Rowing shoes have a uniform 4-screw foot stretcher fitting, which enables them to be rapidly interchanged within or between boats to accommodate changes in crews. Shoes for rowing are purpose-made with Velcro safety release closures and safety laces to Fédération Internationale des Sociétés d’AvironFISA standard. Quick release fittings are also available.

Shooting
Marksman like archers need to be stable and balanced. The Nike Simadi is built on a carbon fibre plate that is both lightweight and stiff. To prevent foot slippage, a high-traction rubber compound is integrated into the outsole, providing grip on the hardwood floors of the range. The stiff, synthetic upper with a moulded heel cup and midfoot panel helps keep the athlete’s foot firmly in place inside the shoe. The Nike Simadi Mid rifle shoe has ankle support to help lock down the shooter’s stance. The square toe of the Nike Simadi Mid was designed to accommodate and stabilize the toe-to-floor contact point of the foot in laying and kneeling positions. In the rifle shoe only, the carbon plate in the sole has been truncated to allow slight flex for floor positions.

Swimming
Japanese Getas (platform thongs) set the fashion world abuzz in the '56 Melbourne Olympics and re-launched the Australasian pre-occupation with thong sandals. After the Second World War, Diggers brought back Japanese and Philippino thongs as Wartime souvenirs. Once plastic flip-flops became available then the footwear was instantly adopted as national dress in the Big Brown Land and Land of the Silver Cloud. US Swimmer, Mark Spitz , was not the first but certainly went barefoot to the winner's platform. He was carrying his adidas shoes by his side. This was taken at the time as blatant marketing and an affront to Olympic amateurism. The Russians complained.

Tennis
In 1896 the first Olympic tennis champion was an Irishman called John Pius Boland. He set out for Athens as a tourist, never guessing that by the time he returned to British shores he would have been crowned one of the first, and most unlikely, Olympic champions. A close friend had been appointed secretary of the first organising committee and entered Boland into the tennis competition. Fortunately the Irishman was a good player but had no equipment, clothing or footwear for sporting pursuits. Wearing leather-soled shoes with a heel and wielding a borrowed racket, he cut down all opposition before overcoming Egyptian, Dionysios Kasdaglis in the final of the inaugural tennis event. Before and after the Second World War, Australian, Adrian Quist (doubles tennis champion) perfected the court shoe which would become the forefather of all trainers, and grand great father of Sk8er's shoes. In the 50s, 'Tappy' Larsen got his name because of his habit of tapping the court with his foot and racket. The left handed champion had an intricate tapping ritual before serving. The novelty took the attention of the crowd he then referred to him as 'Tappy' Larson. Tennis was reinstated as an Olympic event in 1988.

Taekwondo
Taekwondo footwear was designed to protect the feet of athletes whose performance may be compromised by injuries in earlier rounds. The design allows for maximum movement while protecting the foot and ankle. To aid judging the protective cushioning material on the footgear makes a loud 'clicking' sound upon impact with an opponent.

Weight lifting
In the beginning of the modern sport, competitors wore what they could including, combat boots, hi-top Chuck Taylor's, and even patent leather oxfords. As the sport progressed and became more popular a new range of footwear evolved. Shoes required to fit snugly giving both stability and support to the feet. The soles of the weightlifters shoes had to be non-compressible negating the use of trainers and have a wedged heel with suitable sole traction to grip the ground. To accommodate different foot widths the new shoes laced all the way down to the toe and had an adjustable strap across the metatarsal area for added lateral stability. Free weight lifters prefer high topped shoes for added ankle stability but weightlifters need flexible ankle movement and cannot have the shoe come up too high on the ankle. Bucking the popular trend for lightweight footwear, weightlifters, shoes are heavier than most sports shoes because of the increased mass they need to support. The athlete needs to move the bar by placing all their force beneath the weight to be lifted and this requires a stable stance position. A clean lift necessitates the knees stay apart and sometimes wedged heels are worn. Weightlifters shoes need to withstand up to 1,000 pounds and are often made with either wooden soles or a piece of wood in the heel to help the lifter secure their stance. Heel height (1 inch to 1¼ inch )is important and the higher the height of the heel the more the foot angles helping the lifter to maintain a more upright posture. For balance the needs to be flexible to allow the knees to go over the toes. Dubbed Romaleos, Nike released the Nike Air Rejuven8, this is a shoe with contoured wedged heel and according to the manufacturer consists of midsole containing a system of trusses and bridges for strength. Rivals adidas introduced the adiStar Weightlifting Shoe 08 with a lightweight arch support and foot stabiliser. The shoes feature ClimaCool and TORSION SYSTEM and midfoot strap gives optimum pressure distribution and maximum support. Recovery shoes are non competitive footwear intended to be worn on the medals stand.

Wrestling
Wrestlers require a high co-efficient of friction (Fc) between their boots and mat. Too much has the potential to increase the risk of knee and ankle injuries by fixing the foot too securely to the ground. Boots are worn high above the ankle. Nike introduced the Inflict II Men's Wrestling Shoe which is a lightweight, flexible wrestling shoe with a gum rubber outsole for excellent traction on wet and dry mats. The breathable mesh upper moves and flexes with the foot and there is lace pocket to keep lace ends tied and covered.

Wushu
The Chinese martial art of Wushu is an exhibition sport this year. Nike’s Shaolinquan (Mandarin for martial arts) has a leather upper, a gum-rubber outsole and a pocket where athletes can tuck laces with a smaller, more culturally sensitive Swoosh.

No Shoes

2008-09-01T23:53:00.000-07:00

Throughout the Modern Games there have been several barefoot competitors in track and field events. The most famous were marathon gold medallist, Abeb Bikila (Ethiopia) in Rome (1960) and Zola Budd (GB) in 1984. Rivals Zola Budd and Mary Decker (US)were pitched against each other in the 3,000m race in Los Angeles, Decker took the lead early but Budd stayed with her. When Budd veered in front of Decker the two runners collided. Trying to keep their balance Decker put a spike through Budd’s left heel. Decker fell injuring her hip and although Budd jogged to the line she came in seventh. Few elite runners compete shoeless but many will train barefoot. Australian, Herb Elliot was encouraged by Percy Carroty (1895-1975) to run barefoot through sand and grass to strengthen his muscles. Cerutty believed barefoot running was an ideal preparation for the body to run long distances fast. He revolutionised running training in Australia and introduced sand dune running at Portsea, Victoria. These ideas are still commonly shared among the successful coaches, worldwide. Barefoot training led Nike to design the Nike Free which according to the manufacturers allow the foot behave naturally and are used by many athlete as training footwear.

Common Sports Injuries

2008-09-01T23:28:00.000-07:00

It is estimated over 1,700 athletes suffer foot or footwear related injuries during the Beijing Olympic Games and countless on the way. To cater for these advents it is usual for an army of medical experts to accompany the athletes to Olympics and Paralympics. Most major national teams have their own medical teams as well as medical services being available in the Olympic Village. Podiatrists and pedorthists make a valuable contribution to foot care with pedortists experts in shoe and shoe modifications and podiatrists, foot physicians. Pedorthists design, make, fit and modify shoes to alleviate painful and debilitating foot and leg problems and podiatrists use foot inlays called foot orthoses to add lateral stability to the mobile foot. Shoes are frequently cited as the cause of injury in athletes but this usually relates to superficial problems only such as blisters and black nails. Rarely do serious foot injuries arise as a result of shoes alone but when athletes are constantly in training and competition then repetitive stress injuries are common. In a report conducted by American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society, runners were asked to self report shoe related injuries. Sixty three (63%) of injured runners reported wearing shoes for less than six months and had ran less than 300 miles. (It is recommended runners replace their shoes every 300-400 miles). Expert opinion prefers overuse or rapid increase in mileage and training intensity as the more common causes of foot injuries with shoes a minor contributor to injury. Statistically athletes are more likely to sustain injury during training than in competition but it does happen and when this presents it becomes an Olympic moment caught on camera for million to witness. The dramatic events which surrounded Olympic 110 metres hurdles champion, Liu Xiang when he pulled his Achilles tendon is a good case in point.

Some of the more common below knee and foot injuries that occurred during the Beijing Olympics, included:

Knee Injuries
Patella femoral pain syndrome (PFPS) is a common knee affliction and arises when the patella is pulled obliquely over the articulating surface of the knee joint. The increased 'Q angle’ predisposes the joint surface to osteoarthrothosis of the inferior surface of the patella as it moves laterally over the tibia. A contributory factor is subtalar pronation during late propulsion which causes internal rotation of the lower limb altering the track of the patella. Reduction in symptoms may arise when the athlete wears wedged running shoes giving better lateral stability. When combined with physical therapy this helps reduce the ‘Q angle’ which in turn assists rehabilitation and prevents reoccurance.

Menisci Tears (torn cartilage)
The two articulating bones of the knee i.e. femur (thigh) and tibia (leg) rest on two semi-elliptical C shaped menisci. These are cartilage like material which sit on either side of each other in the joint capsule. One meniscus is on the inside (or medial aspect) of the knee and the other semi circular meniscus, rests on the outside of your knee i.e. the lateral meniscus. The menisci help dampen down shock which passes through the weightbearing knee and distribute weight to improve the stability of the joint. Tears in the menisci are due to trauma caused when the knee joint is flexed and twisted. The injury is often associated with contact sport but does arise in athletics too. It is not uncommon for the meniscus tear to occur along with injuries to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the medial collateral ligament (MCL) Damaged menisci reduce the shock absorbing capacity of the joint which increases the risk of developing damage to the articular cartilage surface of the knee joint. Loss of the meniscus increases the risk of osteoarthrosis which inevitably will end an athlete’s career.

Shin splints
Pain in the anterior or posterior compartments of the shinbone (tibia) caused by inflammation due to muscle tears, tendon damage or separation of Sharpey's fibres and periosteum of the tibia. Muscle bulk builds up in a contracting facial compartment due to combination of internal rotation of the knee and subtalar joint pronation during propulsion. Customised foot orthoses may reduce symptoms associated with late pronation but professional help is recommended because condition can worsen.

Achilles tendon
Achilles Tendonitis - Irritation causes inflammation of the tendon attaching the calf muscle to the back of the foot (calcaneum). Depending on the severity the insertion may pull away for the bone or be partially damaged. When the periosteum (bone lining) is damaged bone spurs may result. Over stretching in warm ups, or overtraining are a known cause and sometimes symptoms are relieved with heel lifts in the shoe or if the athlete wears wedged heels.

Achilles tendon rupture
A ruptured (or torn) tendon may occur when the tendon has been structurally weakened by tendonitis, or when a completely healthy tendon is subjected to a sudden, unexpected force causing a tear. Tendon ruptures are common in running, jumping, throwing and racket sports. When a tendon tears, people often report hearing a pop at the back of the ankle. Since the calf muscle is no longer attached to the calcaneum making walking and running impossible. Left untreated, the tendon often fails to heal, thereby resulting in a permanent disability. Scar tissue forms which is likely to lead to inflammation of the tendon (achilles tendonitis). In severe tears the athletes will be aware of a sudden pain in the tendon; often with minor ruptures the person is not aware of the damage in the heat of sport, but will become aware of it later when the tendon has cooled down. Athletes returning to exercise after a short period of rest may experience be a sharp pain which disappears when warmed up only to return when stopped. First thing in the morning the Achilles tendon is stiff with local swelling. Sprinter, Mark Lewis-Francis (UK) suffered a torn Achilles injury and missed the Beijing Games.

Ankle Injuries
Ankle sprains are common in runners and jumpers and caused by turning or running on a downward incline and landing badly from a jump. The majority are inversion sprains where the foot turns inwards. Ankle strains can be acute (one off) or chronic (recalcitrant). Occasionally the ankle may fracture. Unless trauma to the ankle is common in the sport ankle protection is not required from the shoe. Good traction and comfortable fit will optimize foot and leg function. Occasionally loose fitting footwear or over zealous cleats may contribute.

Feet Injuries
Bunion
A fluid filled sac caused by irritation to the bursa (adventitious) which protects the inside aspect of the big toe joint. Caused by sheering stress usually against the inner of the shoe when worn tight on the foot or due to rough seems. Not to be confused with hallux abducto-valgus this describes subluxation (partial dislocation) of the first metatarsal phalangeal joint. Always check shoes for unseen seems and wherever possible wear shoes, which does not constrain joint movement.

Hallux Abducto-Valgus
Partial dislocation of the great toe with marked rotation and lateral deviation of the digit. A firm, often painful bump forms on the outer edge of the foot, at the base of the big toe. Due to patho-mechanics principally caused by rotation of the forefoot against the rearfoot caused by a lax foot during propulsion. The medial eminence may develop a bunion if aggravated by narrow shoes. Always check shoes for unseen seems and wherever possible wear shoes, which do not constrain joint movement.

Heel spurs
Bony outgrowths from the calcaneum (usually) caused by damage to the periosteum. Area may calcify to form a spur, which is easily visible by medical imaging but maybe asymptomatic. Often found in conjunction with plantar fasciitis, an inflammation of the fibrous connective tissue (fascia), which joins the rear foot and forefoot. May also relate to inflammation of the bone cells i.e. enthosopaphy. Common in athletes who run a lot or jump and land and damage is related to micro facial tears or stretches. Good fitting shoes with torsional midfoot support may reduce ligamentous strain. When symptoms persist recommend professional help.

Ingrown toenails
The corner of the toenail penetrates the skin surface. Due to poor hygiene the condition may become complicated by bacterial infection. Usually caused by improper nail trimming, tight shoe pressure, traumatic injury, and hyperidrosis (excess perspiration) may also contribute. Good fitting shoes with plenty room at the toe box will accommodate painful nails, vented footwear, which reduces perspiration on the skin surface, will also help. Prevention includes trimming nails straight across.

Neuroma
Benign thickening of nerve tissue, frequently between the third and fourth toes, causing pain, numbness or burning sensation. The nerve is intermittently compressed and stretched during late pronation in propulsion. Early diagnosis can keep condition from worsening. Shoe inserts, toe orthoses and shoes, which cater for Windlass management of the foot, may help but prolonged symptoms need professional attention.

Sesamoiditis
The sesamoids bones are two small bones on the under-side of the first metatarso-phalangeal joint. These may become damaged with persistent use and can become inflamed during exercise. Good fitting footwear suitable to the activity is important. Shoe inserts can be useful but if symptoms persist consult a physician

Stress fractures
Small, incomplete cracks in the metatarsal bones arise due to overuse, or loss of bone strength. When these arise in the middle three metatarsals these are referred to as 'March Fracture'. Fractures of the base of the fifth metatarsal, or Jones Fracture is sometimes related to severe inversion sprain caused by a misplaced cleat. Extra padding and shoes with stiff soles may ease discomfort but rest is recommended. Left untreated the stress lines may become complete fractures and require a walking cast. Symptoms persist consult a physician. Great Britain's Rhys Williams pulled out of the Beijing Olympics after the 400 metres hurdler suffered a stress fracture to his right foot.

Barefoort Protest

2008-08-31T02:15:00.000-07:00

The Mexico City Olympics were staged against a surreal and tumultuous 1968. Social change and general unrest at the continuation of the Vietnam War and race riots and student protests formed a tragic backdrop for the assassinations of Malcom X, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Senator Robert F. Kennedy. A planned boycott by black athletes failed but the atmosphere was charged with protest as the Games were televised and broadcast live to the US. The Black athletes were determined to show solidarity and wore no shoes around the Village and when Tommie Smith (Gold) and John Carlos (Bronze) took their place on the winner's podium with Australian, Peter Norman (silver) for the 200m. Smith and Carlos, closed their eyes, bowed their heads, before raising a black-gloved fist during the playing of the 'Star-Spangled Banner.' The raised fist and glove referred to defiance in the weight of racial servitude and the shoeless stance was a symbol of humanity and statement of poverty. Smith wore a scarf around his neck as mark of 'Black Pride'. The dignified brave barefoot protest was met with outrage from officialdom and Smith and Carlos were expelled from the Olympics. Both athletes kept their socks on. To this day the simple action of two barefoot men has become an iconic milestone in the history of civil rights. Muhammad Ali described it as 'the single most courageous act of the century'. On September 25, 2000, Day ten of the XXVII Olympiad, the Australian athlete Cathy Freeman captured the hearts of the biggest crowd ever to attend an athletics event when, after winning gold in the 400m performed her lap of honour, barefoot. She carried with her both Aboriginal and Australian flags to thunderous applause. Cathy walked barefoot to the edge of the stands where she tossed the two-sided flag into the adoring crowd. Previously the Aboriginal athlete had been criticised by officials at 1994 Commonwealth Games, when she took her victory lap, carrying both the Aboriginal and Australian flags. The theme of the Sydney Olympics was Reconciliation and Cathy became an indelible Australian hero.

Women are more prone to injury: Warrior Girls

2008-08-28T23:15:00.000-07:00

The Olympics are over for another four years and all that remains is to welcome our successful athletes back to the fold. Now the dust has settled and the media moved onto the next glittering event then few spare a thought for the athletes back to early morning runs, hard training schedules and local competitions. Lucrative contracts for the few but the vast majority of sportspersons beaver away very much the poor relation of their professional counterparts. Come the day and come the hour it appears we expect too much from our female athletes according to a recent book written by Michael Sokolove entitled Warrior Girls. The author has studied the injury patterns of athletes and discovered female athletes are more likely to suffer injury than males. Most of which are preventable but according to Sokolove the winning culture ignores prevention preferring young sportswomen damage themselves all in the name of sport. Whilst regular physical activity is beneficial concerns are now directed at team sports like soccer and basketball, which have increasingly adopted the nose-bloodying male model of athletic prowess. Pushing female athletes to specialise in one sport and to play it relentlessly all year has been connected to detrimental development of women’s bodies. In particular there has been a significantly high level of knee injuries in young female who play soccer, basketball and volleyball. Studies have shown women are eight times more likely to damage themselves in "jumping and cutting" sports. Sokolove argues many young athletes are under pressure from peers and coaches to participate in situations which over exposure them to damage. A contributory factor is footwear and according to several studies it appears many sportspeople are likely to wear the wrong shoes for their sport. Many people remain unaware that different activities require different styles footwear. Most buy one pair of generic trainers which they wear for every activity, not realising different activities need specific shoes designed to protect their feet and avoid sports-related injuries. Running on hard surfaces for example need footwear which cushion and support the feet as well as have a hard wearing outsole. A good set of running shoes should be renewed ever year. By contrast aerobics shoes should give support to the ankle to avoid injury when making sudden side-to-side movements. A quick peek into any high street sport shoe shop will confirm there are now shoes for all sports and whilst cross trainers might do the couch potato, the more serious sports person should seek out the proper footwear for their chosen sport. In any event as with all shoes make sure when you buy them that they fit your feet comfortably and the style is appropriate for the intended use.

Records fall in Beijing, but how about London?

2008-08-28T23:01:00.000-07:00

There were a total of 302 gold medals won and 38 world records set with 132 Olympic records broken and 43 world records fell during the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. What is particularly remarkable about his is there has almost been no change in the major athletic world records since 1989. Experts have long accepted today’s athletes may have reached optimal power to weight ratio and subsequently were unlikely to top existing records however something has happened to question this hypothesis. Performance enhancing substances aside there has been a strong lobby in support of niche training and better nutrition to improve technique and endurance. Unlike athletics, swimming records have continued to fall and many attribute this to technical developments in swimwear. Whilst footwear manufacturers have eagerly attempted to shave records with shoe design innovations it appears to have met with little success. The fastest man on Earth, Usain Bolt (Jamaica) put on a brilliant performance wearing a “No Frills” pair of running shoes. Performance enhancing sport shoes which contain springs continue to be banned. According the United States of America Track and Field governing body, Rule 71 states: ‘the purpose of shoes for competition is to give protection and stability to the feet and a firm grip to the ground. Such shoes, however, must not be constructed so as to give the competitor any additional assistance, and no spring or device of any kind may be incorporated in the shoes.’ Spring shoes are not classed as costume but equipment which is banned from International competitions. The recent controversy which surrounded double amputee, Oscar Pistorius’s carbon-fibre protheses i.e. Cheetahs flex foot prostheses, presents a very interesting precedent. Whilst he failed to qualify for the Olympics the ruling he may compete with now open the door to spring shoes in competition in the future. UK Sport is the governing body that directs the development of British sport and in preparation for the 2012 London Olympics they have enlisted a diverse range of companies and academics whose fields of expertise engulf enhancing sporting performance. There is a reported £100m being invested per year into preparations for the 2012 summer Olympics and the 2010 Vancouver winter Olympics and £1.5m has been earmarked annually for developing new technology. One of the main focus of research is developing new ways to train, to recover and how to best measure performance. Information is scant for obvious reason but one of the main projects will involve the use of selective laser sintering to custom sprint spikes for athletes. By tuning the longitudinal bending stiffness characteristics of sprint spikes to the physical characteristics of the athlete it is hoped to increase mechanical energy at the ankle.

Sponsorship and injury: Nike and Liu Xiang

2008-08-23T23:46:00.000-07:00

Nike's top Chinese marketing vehicle was 110-meter Olympic hurdling champ Liu Xiang, who sadly pulled out of the Games with an Achilles' injury. An obvious disappointment for the athlete might have been a disaster for the company who had invested a considerable sum in promoting the association. Despite being forced to cancel congratulatory ads for the athlete on his success the footwear company acted quickly to appease the disappointed Chinese sports fans by taking out full page adverts in leading Chinese papers to support of Liu with the tag "Love sport, even when it breaks your heart."

A translation, from a version of the ad running in the English-language China Daily would be:

Love Competition
Love risking your pride
Love winning it back
Love giving it everything you’ve got
Love the glory
Love the pain
Love sport even when it breaks your heart

Nike spent a fortune sponsoring Liu Xiang and a host of other A-list Olympic athletes, but because adidas sponsors the Chinese Olympic Association, the German company insisted all the home nation’s medallists wore an adidas podium suit even if they had worn Nike top, shorts and running shoes when winning their medal.

Biff, spat, ban: An Olympic foot moment

2008-08-23T23:37:00.001-07:00

Cuba’s Angel Matos was winning 3-2, with 1:02 in the second round, when he fell to the mat after being hit by his opponent, Kazakhstan’s Arman Chilmanov. Whilst awaiting medical attention for his foot injury he was disqualified by referee Chakir Chelbat of Sweden for exceeding the one minute allowed. Matos angrily questioned the call before pushing then kicking the judge. In a final mark of disrespect he also spat on the floor before being escorted out.

Play Fair 2008

2008-08-23T16:34:00.000-07:00

Play Fair 2008 is organised by the Clean Clothes Campaign (CCC), the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), and the International Textile, Garment and Leather Worker’s Federation (ITGLWF), among others. The main function is oversee the human rights of workers involved in sportswear manufacture. According to their reports brand name companies have used their market power to negotiate the best price and quickest turnover from manufacturers in developing countries which is to the detriment of the workforce. Unscrupulous manufacturers have relied on a workforce unable to negotiate acceptable working conditions and by negated duty of care and promulgated atrocious abuse of human rights created sweat factories. Workers are expected to toil long hours (up to 18 hours per day) in arduous conditions without the most basic employment protection. Women in developing countries have no job security and are expected to work unpaid overtime at the risk of loosing their jobs. The pay rate can be as little as 30 cents (US) per hour. In the past researchers have reported factory workers malnourished, ill, and living in substandard housing but because this was the only regular work available the workforce continue to suffer human rights abuse despite reassurances from Brand leaders to the contrary. In 2004 large companies like Adidas-Salomon, Nike, Reebok and Puma have been held to account by Oxfam in their "Play Fair at the Olympics," with the focus to change purchasing practices; implement credible labor practice policies in conjunction with trade unions and other concerned organizations. Despite a more recent approach to the International Olympic Movement (IOM) to respect the rights of workers in the sportswear industry, the IOC remains non committal and continue to refuse to take moral leadership on the issue. Prior to Beijing Olympics a new report entitled Clearing the hurdles: Steps to improving working conditions in the global sportswear industry was released. Researchers reported workers producing for the international sportswear companies are still working excessive hours and paid poverty wages. Over 300 sportswear workers in China, India, Thailand and Indonesia were interviewed and violations of worker rights are still prevalant. The research showed workers producing goods sold by brand leaders such as Adidas, Asics, New Balance, Nike, and Puma are still earning poverty wages. At a time when company profits are at a premium and likely to sore higher after the Games it appears all the more unfair. Whilst company giants, adidas and Nike fight for market dominance in China, most of their shoes are made by Yue Yuen, the Hong Kong manufacturer that produces one-sixth of the world’s sports shoes. Yue Yuen workers reported working without rest periods and under pressure to meet mass production targets with many having to glue 120 pairs of shoes every hour. At Joyful Long factory in China’s Pearl River Delta, which supplies Adidas, Nike, Umbro and Fila, it was reported the overtime could reach 232 hours per month while average wages were almost half the legal minimum. Whilst major sportswear brand adopted codes of conduct more than 15 years ago but the report shows workers still face extreme pressure to meet production quotas, excessive, undocumented and unpaid overtime, verbal abuse, threats to health and safety and a failure to provide legally required health and other insurance programs. The full report can be read here . Keen to avoid potential adverse publicity companies began to improve poor working conditions at their sports goods factories by introducing new stringent working conditions. If the ‘best practice was not implemented then companies would cease to trade with rogue manufacturers. In 2003a Code of Labor Practice for licensed Olympic Goods was established but it appears has not always implemented. FIFA also agreed to a code of labor practice for FIFA licensed products, but according to the Clean Clothes Campaign may not always implement it. At the 29th Olympiad, Reebok took the unprecidented decision not to allow their athletes to speak at press conferences or one-on-one interviews during the Games. Fearing a compromised situation Reebok contracted media organisations with pre-edited film clips to save embarrassment to athletes ill prepared to comment upon human rights issues.

Anything is possible

2008-08-21T19:40:00.000-07:00

It was in front of 4 billion viewers that Li Ning pulled off the coup of the Beijing Olympics. As we thrilled at the sight of Li Ning, China's former Olympic champion gymnast, gracefully circling the roof of the Bird's Nest stadium and lighting the Olympic flame few recognised he was wearing trainers made by his own company. Li became one of China's most famous athletes after taking three gold medals, two silvers and a bronze at the 1984 Los Angeles games. Li Ning established his own sportswear company in 1990 and manufactures his own footwear, emblazoned with a V-shaped stroke which looks remarkably similar to Nike’s swoosh. The Hong Kong-listed Li Ning Co., is China's largest footwear and apparel company and dominated the China's sportswear market until recently. Neither Nike or adidas executives were too pleased with the hijack marketing photo opportunity which has resulted in a 6% rise in Li Ning Co’s., share price on the Shanghai stock market. Behind the scenes it appears the authorities turned a blind eye after Li Ning agreed to drop his bid to get newscasters from the China Central Television's sports channel to wear his clothes during the games. The Li Ning Co., sponsore the Spanish national team as well as the Chinese gymnastics, shooting, table tennis and diving teams. The motto of the Li Ning Company Ltd is “Anything Is Possible.”

Loose laces and Mandals: Whatever next?

2008-08-19T15:37:00.000-07:00

I am grateful to my chum, Al in Brighton UK for the following comments, "Usain "Lightning' Bolt may have the fastest feet on the Earth but what to do about the aftermath of his golden sprint with lousened laces. How can parents ever get their teenagers to do their laces up again?"

It has been suggested the rise in popularity of the hummble thong (flip flop) in Australia followed the 1956 Melbourne Olympics. Seen on the box for the very first time the Olympic heats became compulsive viewing with sports like swimming a novelty for many people. The wearing of ceremonial getas (platform sandals) by the lady Japanese competitors as they came to the pool is thought to have kindled public interest in wearing the newly available plastic Jandals from New Zealand and as a result an Aussie Icon was born. Well the same thing could happen with Mandals, that's man sandals, after golden boy Michael Phelps was seen wearing them round the pool. Now predicted to become a fashion statment for real men (ie. the macho equivalent to the ladies fashion sandal), the idea has the fashion and foot police in a tizzy with predictions of declining standards of civilisation and soaring feet ailments for generations to come. The Cape Cod look is definately here with no less a personage of Barack Obama photographed on a Hawaiian vacation wearing his flip-flops. But the big question is will he be able to wear them in the Whitehouse?

Beijing Olympics: 100 metres record broken 2008

2008-08-19T00:49:00.000-07:00

Usain Bolt (Jamaica) produced a stunning performance to win the men's 100 metres Olympic title in a new world record time of 9.69 seconds. The 21-year-old held the old record of 9.72secs but beat Richard Thompson (Trinidad and Tobago - 9.89secs) while Walter Dix (United States) was third in a time of 9.91secs. After his victorious The Lighting Bolt held his golden shoes aloft kissing them several times and draping himself in the Jamaican flag. Australian Dr Herb Elliott, former CEO of Puma North America and now the Jamaican team chief doctor, immediately moved to scotch suggestions that the youngster was doped. The former athlete and doctor (biochemistry) confirmed the champion has been tested over and over again.

Golden Boy Usain ‘Lightning’ Bolt

2008-08-16T02:41:00.000-07:00

If anyone is likely to break a record it has to be Usain ‘Lightning’ Bolt (Jamaica). He is a giant at 6-foot-5-inches, and 195 pounds and already has broken the 100-meter world record, with a 9.72-second sprint in New York in May. By comparison to the reigning world champ US Tyson Gay (5;11”) and the former world-record holder Jamaican Asafa Powell (6” 1”), Usain tours above them making him an unusual sprint champion. The big man has a larger stride than his opponents and takes less than 45 strides to complete the 100m. His rivals average 48 strides. When the muscular athlete powers his way from the starting blocks he is virtually unbeatable. It has taken the athlete sometime to master his starts and he previously championed the 200m which gave him time to catch up with the rest of the field. Now he has worked on his starts he has shown himself to be a formidable competitor in both 100 and 200m. Usain is sponsored by Puma and competes in golden Theseus II sprint shoes. The shoes are embroidered with Bolt’s name and the race distance i.e he has different shoes for the 100m and the 200m. The Puma Complete Theseus II Croc track spike was developed for the 2008 Olympic games in Beijing. It has a full-length Pebax® spike plate and rubber heel and weighs 6.5 oz. Lightning’s shoes are golden which includes the upper, soles and laces.

Nike's Flywire:Borrowed from anatomy

2008-08-16T01:57:00.000-07:00

Another potential record breaking shoe is the Zoom Victory spike from Nike which took seven years to develop. It is a lightweight shoe (92 grams) reinforced by a string retinacula, built into the sides and heel of the shoe. The key stress lines of the shoe are reinforced with strong fibres or villi which act as a retinaculum to give integrity to the shoes and support to the moving foot. The Vectran® fibers which are a quarter of the diameter of a human hair are made from knitted liquid-crystal fibres have been spun into filaments (called Flywire). The high-strength threads are pound-for-pound five times stronger than steel and have been used in demanding applications ranging from cushioning Mars Rovers during landings to the cabling system on new airborne wind turbines, puncture-resistant bicycle tires and the world's largest sail on a luxury charter. Each Zoom Victory Spike uses 116 strands of the Vectran fiber Flywire strands to keep an athletes' foot supported at key points, such as the heel and forefoot, and also firmly cradled in the spike's footprint, according to the Nike Innovation Lab site. According to the developers this enables more energy to be transferred directly into forward motion with each stride. The tensile stress resisting Flywires lie between layers of thermoplastic polyurethane film and are anchored from the eye stay down to the centre seams beneath the sock liner. Like bone trabeculae they criss-cross in strategic design to give added strength to the shoe ensuring a close fit to the foot. A cross mesh of Flywires has replaced the traditional heel counter which makes it featherlight. According to the manufacturers this system is as close as applying a spike plate directly to the feet. The Nike’s Zoom Victory Spike will be worn by Kenyan American Bernard Lagat (US) in the 1500-meters. Nike have included the Flywire technology in other shoes including the LunaRacer and Zoom Matumbo distance shoes; the Hyperdunk basketball shoe; the Zoom Court Luna tennis shoe; and the Raketa badminton shoe.

Different shoes for different strides

2008-08-15T17:44:00.000-07:00

For the last couple of years technicians have been beavering away in laboratories developing new shoes for the Olympics. After Athens 2004, when the focus was on keeping cool in the hot temperatures, the main objective for Beijing 2008 has been the development of dependable lightweight spikes that improve track interphase and become record breaking shoes. The adidas Lone Star spike was crafted specifically for the Texan 400m superstar Jeremy ‘Pookie’ Wariner . After studying the runner’s gait pattern ‘Pookie’s’ prefers his left foot for stabilisation and his right foot for propulsion. The sole of left and right shoes were crafted differently with strategically placed crampon like lugs and force channels positioned to cope with the different function of the feet i.e. stable pedestal or propulsive lever. To cope with the stresses of turning adidas developed asymmetrical spikes designed for taking left turns on the track. The project involved teams of engineers, designers and biochemists combining their talents to produce the Lone Star spike. According to the manufacturer, traditional spikes cut into the running track causing athletes to exert unnecessary energy pulling the spike back out of the track. The adidas Lone Star Spike compresses the track riding over the surface like a piston, this is thought to reduce energy requirement and the tapered grooves of the progressive-compression spike provide the best penetration/compression ratio giving optimal shoe track interface. The designers hope this will be converted to better performance. The progressive-compression spikes are stronger than steel but made of ceramic composite which weighs much less. Another key feature of the Lone Star spike is the stability one plate system (or shoe bottom) which consists of a 1.1 mm thick full length plate made from polymer materials and reinforced with microscopic carbon nanotubes which act as bonds giving the plate structural integrity and durability. The new shoes weigh half the weight less than 140 grams and the manufacturers claim the lighter shoe will save energy giving each foot optimal function.

Interesting link.
adidas innovation team leader Mic Lussier explains the designs behind Jeremy Wariner's Lone Star Spike.

Adidas innovates

Olympics: the changing face of marketing shoes

2008-08-11T18:22:00.000-07:00

Both adidas and Nike have introduced new shoes for the 29th Olympiad with Official sponsor, adidas reporting 17 new designs more than they did for the 2004 Athens Games. The new shoes are designed for specific events/sports but somewhat surprisingly the majority will never make it to store shelves. The reason for this is a major switch in marketing strategy from the Sydney Olympics when footwear companies were keen to align their products with Olympic winners and more importantly with record breakers. Unlike the impact of the new racer suits for swimmers, there have been over fifty-four world records broken since the Speedo LZR Racer was launched, sport shoe innovations have not translated into improved performances and athletic records have not fallen as anticipated. This has caused footwear companies to be wary of factious claims, like our “shoes shave times,” and the giants of the industry are more content to cloth the masses in lifestyle attire which is altogether more profitable. The Olympic Games represents the biggest catwalk for shoes in the world and the race to secure top market position in the lucrative Chinese market is the ultimate glittering prize of the Beijing Olympics 2008. It is estimated sales of sport shoes and associated attire in China alone this year will exceed $2 billion US. Presently Nike has the lion share with adidas trailing their rivals behind the scenes both have been beavering away opening new outlets in China and heavily promoting their wears through personality endorsements and other sponsorships. By the end of this year adidas will have opened 5,000 Chinese stores and Nike will have 4,000 outlets. Adidas-Salomon is an official sponsor of the Beijing Olympics but Nike their main rival is not and whilst adidas has always had a close association with sports and the Olympics, on the world market who outsells them. What’s more recent surveys conducted in China indicate the vast majority of consumers care little for who supports the Games and are brand loyal buyers who prefer what they knows as opposed to what is promoted in heavy advertising. It appear Nikes stealth by aligning with individual Chinese sport federations, and teams as well as high profile individuals like, gold medallist hurdler, has paid off. As official sponsor adidas have outfitted more than 3,000 of the estimated 10,500 athletes and more than 600,000 members of Chinese Olympic delegation and organizing committee. adidas subsidiary Reebok, is outfitting 250 athletes whereas, Nike will cloth athletes from 100 countries competing for medals in 32 sports. Adidas may yet have the last laugh because as part of their sponsorship they shall clothe all medal winners at their presentation. The company paid a reported $80 million US for the privilege.

The merits (or otherwise) of Olympic Sponsorship

2008-08-02T20:10:00.000-07:00

Sponsorship is now considered a major aspect of the modern games without which the global spectacular would undoubtedly run a crippling loss. In 1948 the event cost an estimated $1.2 million US, 9 Olympiads later, Athens spent $20.25bn, and in 2008, the Beijing Olympics is estimated at $38.91bn. This figure does not include collosal costs of security. Modern sponsorship is split between 12 global sponsors and 21 national-level sponsors. The global deals are sold on a four-year cycle, incorporating both a winter and a summer Games. For the 2006 Turin, and 2008 Beijing Games, firms paid $72m each. The Beijing Olympic organizers estimate $1 billion US has come from sponsorship allowing the 2008 Games to project a profit. The final figure is more likely to be $2 billion US. According to the Beijing Olympic Economy Research Association the direct revenue comes from sponsorship, licensing, advertisements, ticket sales and broadcasting rights. Sponsors are multinational companies keen to invest with the anticipated hope of positioning their products and services in full sight of the global audience as well as to promote themselves on the lucrative Chinese market. Recently the China Market Research Group undertook research to explore how effective Olympic sponsorship had been. Chinese men and women between the ages of 18 and 45 in 10 cities were polled and the results were quite revealing with almost 80% of the survey ambivalent to official Olympic sponsorship" when buying a product. The poll findings suggest consumers in China are brand loyal and choose products and services according to value as opposed to high profile advertising. adidas have been a long term sponsor of the global event. adidas decline to confirm the costs of sponsorship but it has been estimated at between $80 million to $100 million US in cash and extras. Despite this investment 40% of the Chinese respondents identified Nike as an Olympic sponsor. Another long term supporter of the games is Coke who have spend a fortune promoting their product on mainland China but the majority of respondents (60%) named Pepsi as a superior brand with a "wider range of products" and "better taste." Experts believe the ‘foreign devils’ (aka multinationals) need to do more that fund the Olympiad. The research group concluded one-time high concentration marketing, such as Olympic sponsorship will have less success than a concerted long-term brand-building program directed at consumers at the point of sale. Nike, who are not an Olympic sponsor, have demonstrated the benefits of building a successful brand image by cunningly associating their sports products with local personalities such as hurdler Liu Xiang, one of China's most popular Olympic athletes, and this has in the public mind created a long-term brand image. China will in the future represent the second highest market for shoe retailers (currently estimated at $3.6 billion) and the allure to dominate with more than 2.6 billion feet is the ultimate glittering prize. adidas hopes to gain a major market share by clothing tens of thousands of officials and volunteers suffice when Chinese athletes win medals, they will receive their awards wearing gear blazed with the Trefoil logo, even if they competed in garb from Nike or other sponsors. Skeptics are already suggesting Beijing 2008 may go down as the high-water mark of the Olympic sponsorship program with four major sponsors yet to sign up for the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver and 2012 Summer Games in London.

What makes a perfect sport shoe?

2008-06-14T17:02:00.000-07:00

Today’s athletes prefer lightweight shoes styled to their particular sport. Improved lasting and construction techniques have guaranteed better comfort and support suffice 'running in', is not required. Shoes are still walking machines and require a matched heel pitch and toe spring for efficient propulsion. The durometer of rearfoot/ forefoot midsole and components need to be appropriate in stiffness and thickness for extreme use. The heel of the sport shoe needs to support and stabilise the anatomical heel throughout the side to side pendulum action and protect it from surreptitious injury during stance phase. Outsoles that provide proper traction for playing surfaces improve stability and lacing systems appropriate to comfort and serviceability enhance fit. The inclusion of biotechnologies, such as sock-liners, improve comfort and make for a more serviceable shoe. We have come a long way from the early sandals of the ancient games. Most sport involves modified locomotion determined by the gait cycle. This describes a repetitive cycle of events, which involves stance phase and swing. During stance phase the heel hits the ground first, then as the foot adjusts to the ground surface, the centre of mass passes over the pedestal as weight transfers from one leg to the other. Swing phase completes the cycle when the weight-bearing limb propels through space to return to stance phase again. The gait cycle consists of one stance phase and one swing phase and in normal walking would take approximately one second to complete. Stance phase consists of 60% of the cycle. Cadence, or the speed of walking determine the length of stance phase and swing phase. Up to middle distance running the normal gait cycle, with heel contact occurs but at a certain point heel strike is omitted and faster track events depend on forefoot contact, only e.g. sprinting. The sport of speed walking depends on the presence of heel contact and its absence would disqualify competitors. Ground reaction forces during contact cause feet to change shape as the joints move to lock and unlock the foot. This subtle movement is hardly visible but essential to reduce damaging forces, which pass upward through the leg to vulnerable weight bearing joints. Heel strike during normal walking generates one and a half times body weight, running at medium speed increase 'G force' to two to three times bodyweight. When a basketball player lands on his heel there may be eight times body weight. Accelerated and exaggerated activities consistent with professional sport increases wear and tear on the body and can cause severe damage to the musculoskeletal system. For this reason sport shoes have taken a more protective role of late and are unlikely, by themselves to improve the athlete’s performance. Sport shoes primarily require to respond to the natural function of the foot. They cope with dimensional change of the foot during critical contact phases with the ground and or external forces (as in contact sports). Unlocking the forefoot during stance phase can change the foot size by as much as one and half times its size. Comfort is considered critical and this is often seen to equate with a tighter fitting shoe, made from a soft upper, which adjusts to the changing foot anatomy. Propulsion is necessary and relies on static friction in the form of traction. Hence the basic anatomy of a sport shoe describes a soft upper combined with a sole tread appropriate to the ground surface the athlete competes upon. Early sports shoes were made with canvas tops and vulcanized rubber soles. Kangaroo skin was a popular upper material from the late 19th century with quality made sport shoes such as croquet and cricket shoes. Metal spikes were used in early leather sprinting shoes. The polymer revolution has meant new materials, some of which are out of this world, are now regularly employed to further assist the athlete in their endeavours. However no shoe yet, has won a gold medal. Not for competing, anyway. At best sports footwear enhances foot performance during the critical points where the lower leg and foot may be compromised and become less efficient as a pedestal or lever. Shoes which enhance foot performance need to be durable and capable of absorbing tremendous sheer and stress. The heel and forefoot experience different loads and forces. Much use is made of 'intelligent polymers' such as visco-elastics (viscos) and elastic foams with good elastic memory. Viscos plastics in the heel absorb impact forces and highly elasticated polymers in the forefoot area minimize the loss of energy transmitted to the shoes during the running movement. Sport surfaces and shoes are deliberately constructed with the intension to reduce excessive loading and optimise performances. The elastic response of the sport surface /shoe system is a critical variable for determining mechanical behaviour. The mechanical behaviour includes energy storage and return, frequency of energy return and cushioning. Original tracks and shoes were less efficient and had limited capacity to store and return energy. New combinations are considered to be 14 times better and thought to covert about 3% of the average energy expenditure per step during middle distance running. Scientists believe energy return and cushioning are closely associated and hence much emphasis has been placed on developing dual density mid soles which are soft on the lateral side and hard on the inside of the foot. This is thought to give to stability when the foot rolls over. The outsoles of the shoe are made from different materials which are combined in a complex way to provide the physical response required in each part of the sole as the foot progresses through stance phase. The sole of an athletic shoe now resembles a grid of squares to allow greater flexibility and most can be rolled from end to end into a coil. There are competing ideas of what makes an ideal sports shoe. Some designers use the principles of energy return (spring). Heel strike or forefoot contact in fast running or landing and take off, exerts physical forces which meet with ground reaction, equal and opposite to them. Placing material with high modulus of crush and elasticity may help dampen these forces which transfer through the weight bearing joints through the spine and to the head. New polymers have helped reduce reaction times by fractions of milliseconds and these are thought to aid in landing and take off. In track and field footwear, shoes which advantage a rigid lever at take off are considered to give the athlete a mechanical advantage. Middle distance runners run on the ball of the foot and have no heel contact in their cycle. Sprinting shoes rely less of cushioning with more emphasis placed on reinforced shanks and spikes combined to advantage propulsion with increase ground traction. To become an efficient lever when the heel is off the ground, the subtalar joint requires to become supinated. This is a complex action caused by turning moments caused by reactive forces coming through the ball of the foot. Extension of the metatarsophalangeal joints tightens the facial bands in a Windlass action helping the calcaneum to reinvert. Rigidity of the midfoot during heel off responds to cradling of the foot inside the shoe at this time. Popular sprinting shoes now include a full length, full width thin shoe plate. The plate has sufficiently flexibile and stiff to optimise propulsion without interfering with natural foot compensations e.g. adidas Beijing Sprint. Lightweight microcellular polyurethanes are used for midsoles. The polymer properties can be adjusted to offer the best balance between damping shock and elasticity. According to Stefanyshyn and Fusco (2004) there is a direct relationship between the shoe bending stiffness and sprint performance. The authors speculated individual differences in calf muscle performance was a better predictor of shoe stiffness and performance than the athletes mass, height, shoe size or skill level. More sophisticated biomechnaical analysis has facilitated better assessment of midsole stiffness and now new polymers are revolutionizing midsole construction. Thermoplastic and visco-elastic insocks further help reduce peak pressures arising during contact phases whilst promoting customized comfort. New formulation polyurethanes are also used in outsole construction through injection to enhance abrasion resistance and ground traction, especially in wet conditions. Injection techniques allow multilayered soles which help with colour, density and hardness of the sole. Running tracks are now made from synthetic materials e.g. Mondo which give a uniform surface and good traction. The traditional running spike gives no advantage and now reinforced plastic spikes have replaced them. These are more compatible with the running tracks. In 2000, adidas introduced Z shaped spikes which were designed not to penetrate (damage) the running surface and the same traction is now achieved with three spikes was previously attributed to seven or eight conventional spikes. A brief review of modern spikes is given at flyingfeet.com (Flying Feet Sport Shoes).

Olympics: What's new in sport shoes?

2008-06-13T15:36:00.000-07:00

Many new shoe innovations on show at the XXVIV Olympiad, Beijing 2008 have been in development for sometime and most are incorporated into all the leading brands. Sports shoes were initially lasted with the upper stitched to thin fibreboard to give the shoe a stable platform. Since fibreboard degrades with excessive use, more manufacturers now prefer to use ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA). In trainers this technique has more or less replaced 'slip lasting' where for flexibility the upper was stitched to itself. By varying the density of EVA the manufacturers provide different properties more specific to the sport in different sections of the shoe. EVA is light in weight and hardwearing in higher densities with the polymers offering cushioning by absorption or resistance to compression. When combined with dual density midsoles, combination of high and low density EVA on the medial side of the rear foot present tilts the calcaneum, presenting ground resistance to subtalar joint pronation during propulsion. A significant advance for female athletes has been acknowledgement women's feet are different from men. The female foot is generally narrower with a broad forefoot and a narrow heel fitting is required. Until recently, women's footwear were just downsized male models but now more manufacturers including Nike, Adidas, Reebok and Asics are catering specifically for females with special lasted shoes. These lasts are made wider and accommodate the foot within the platform of midsole and outsole. Having shoes specific to female athletes also has meant upswing in designer fashion which has made a positive impact in sales. More shoe designers are placing greater emphasis on the sagittal plane model of the foot i.e. the leverage of ankle and first metatarsal phalangeal joints, but the frontal plane model traditionally directed to inversion and eversion is still heavily featured. Less emphasis is now Less emphasis is now placed on the rather oversimplified, rule of toe, mobile flat feet into straight lasted shoes and supinators or high arched feet into a curved lasted shoe and straight lasted shoes are still popular. Shoes meant for everyday training are called training flats and shoes for road races or cross country are referred to as racing flats. Shoes with spikes or spike plates on their soles are called racing spikes. Training and competition shoes are different. Many athletes train in shoes that protect their feet, and then wear different footwear for competition which is light in weight, tight fitting and allows the foot complete range of natural movement, torsion and distortion during the athletic process. Racing flats are intended to go forward and feature sagittal plane emphasis, whereas contact sports require lateral stability and padding. Technological development in the construction of midsoles, which are now thinner and stiffer, has led to lighter shoes more capable to combat excessive stress so closely associated with athletic footwear. Inclusion of biotechnologies is very evident with inlays capable of antifungal properties and wicking. Ankle cuffs and TA protectors now incorporate padded neoprene sleeves to prevent blistering. Construction of outsole continues to gain the attention of designers with new combination materials, patterns and traction designs. Adoption of lacing mechanism more associated with hiking boots mean acceptance of round laces rather than flat laces. The 'laceronis' laces slit more smoothly into the loops and help distribute pressure across the dorsum of the foot. One disadvantage is knots tend to untie more easily and the laces need to be double knotted or lace locked. Some shoes now have lace guards which are sold as wind resistance features.

Foot mechanics in sport

2008-06-12T18:13:00.000-07:00

In the domain of nonsense and sports prowess predictions, it is widely believed if the great toe is longer than the second toe (often the longest) then you will become a champion skier or sprinter. Absolutely no evidence to support this premise but it may have some scientific substance, nonetheless. The great toe is the end of the most important pivot of the foot and together with the ankle, gives a superb mechanical advantage to propel the weight bearing foot through space, which takes care of sprinting. A sound first metatarsophalangeal joint also offers lateral stability to the foot, which would be critical in skiing. The key to the foot's secret is the ability to lock and unlock the forefoot against the rear foot. Simply moving the heel from side to side does this. External turning of the heel (pronation) unlocks the forefoot and causes the extremity to become a mobile adaptor. This is useful when contacting the ground. Internal rotation of the heel (supination) causes the foot to lock giving a rigid lever to propel the foot forward. The stance phase of gait comprises of a complex unlocking and locking of the forefoot against the rear foot most of which is determined by turns and twist from above the foot and ground reaction forces. Feet form the foundation of most sports, whether acting as hydrodynamic rudders in swimming, stable pedestals in archery or shooting, springs and levers that propel track and field athletes, jinkers and weavers in soccer and hockey or mobile adaptors in cycling. In basketball and handball the feet are launching pads for leaps and landings and in tennis and gymnastics they act as brakes, balances and pivots for side to side motions. In Taekwondo, feet are formidable weapons whereas in rowing and equestrian sports they act as grippers and levers. The unique structure and function of feet simultaneously support body mass, balance and propel the body whilst absorbing shock during locomotion. The real success of feet is in their arch construction. We are more familiar with the medial arch but there is also one on the outside of the foot, and an anterior arch, across the ball of the foot. Some experts say this transverse arch is a morbid arch and only becomes apparent after we die but together they give feet a unique advantage over all other living creatures. William Rossi reported the intersection of the arches during locomotion corresponded precisely to the area of the calcaneo-cuboid joint on the lateral column of the foot. The significance of which is the foundation for bipedal locomotion. Biomechanists and anthropologists agree this is the critical difference between the feet of hominids and other primates and gives humans the ability to bear weight on both feet. Feet respond constantly to changes in the strength and direction of downward forces as we move as well as the upward reactions from ground contact. The medial arch stores energy during full foot contact before releasing it as the heel lifts off the ground. Mobility of their joints helps many athletes but an unstable foot or flat foot might give considerable leverage to a long distance runner. Repetitive activities require unusual muscle strength but provided the feet are protected in appropriate footwear, and the athlete toned to perfection, then stress related injuries are minimized. Sprinters and jumpers need rigidity and may be further advantaged by equinus feet (horse like) with the forefoot sitting lower than the heel. In this way the physical make up of an athlete determines the kind of sport they have a natural aptitude for. Field sports like soccer, and tennis with short runs, constant changes in direction, turns and twists prefer mobile feet, which form stable, contact with the ground. Gymnasts prefer feet that are both tactile and mobile adaptors. Competition shoes should not impede the natural ability of feet to locomote and hence the emphasis on comfort. The function of sports shoes has much to do with protecting the body from trauma and pathological compensations brought about by persistent and extreme activities.

Research and design of sports shoes

2008-06-12T02:47:00.000-07:00

According to Hennig (2000) the protective properties of shoes significantly deteriorate after 220 km wear. Sports shoes need to meet both the physical characteristics (biomechanics) of the athletes and the demands imposed by the sporting activities. In the research and design of new sports shoes certain parameters are taken into consideration. These include biomechanics of the sport and athlete which help develop properties including protection from overuse injury and performance enhancement. To produce a quality shoe, designers need a thorough grounding of foot morphology and anatomy, aetiology of commonly reported injuries, and the bioengineering of the lower extremity. Activity analysis entails time and frequency surveys of athletic activities which involves interviews with athletes, coaches, and medical staffs. Biomechanical measurements, performed during running, are essential in determining the influence of footwear construction on running style and loads to the human body. Rearfoot pronation, foot pressure patterns, and shock absorption properties have to be identified to determine shoe characteristics which will reduce the risk of overuse injuries. Rigorous field tests with many runners are necessary to evaluate shoe fit and comfort during running on varying terrain. Durability and long term performance of production shoes are evaluated through a final three month long wear test program. Only the combination of a technical test, biomechanical evaluation and subjective ratings by the athletes provides a complete picture for the quality of performance, protection and comfort needs of athletic shoes. Recent innovations have been the inclusion of dual density midsoles which are soft on the outside and hard on the inside. This provides lateral stability when the foot rolls over. Now sport surfaces and shoes are constructed in tandem with the intention to reduce excessive loading and optimise performance. The elastic response of the sport surface /shoe system is a critical variable for determining mechanical behaviour. The mechanical behaviour includes energy storage and return, frequency of energy return and cushioning. Original tracks and shoes were less efficient and had limited capacity to store and return energy. New combination estimate a 14 times improvement which converts to about 3% of the average energy expenditure per step during middle distance running. Elastomers used in sports shoes can deform elastically up to large strains and permit large volumetric changes due to their porous structure. Cellular elastomers exhibit under tension different material behaviour from compression. These are known as strain energy potential functions. Energy return and cushioning appear associated.

Reference
Hennig E M, 2000 Biomechanical methods for the evaluation of athletic footwear 2000 Pre-Olympic Congress Sports Medicine and Physical Education International Congress on Sport Science.

Olympic Marketing: Carrying the logo

2008-06-07T16:57:00.000-07:00

Olympic sponsorship allows companies to display the Olympic logo on their product labels and advertising. The ideals of the Olympics are passed onto the product or so marketing executives would have us believe. This is thought to enhance sales in demographics keen to be affiliated with the event. Referred to as "The big ticket" marketing the cost to companies runs into millions to use the logo. Where the product is related directly to the sporting activities is the most obvious and sports apparel and shoes are clamber to be associated which acts as a powerful marketing tool. The advantage of Olympic association makes it difficult for competitors unable or unwilling to invest in official sponsorship. Some brand leaders use competitor endorsement as a form of ambush marketing. This is a clever ploy by companies, not directly associated with the event, but able to advertise in close association. Research has shown provided the consumer thinks there is a connection, the products sell as well as if they were official. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) actively discourages ambush marketing to protect the rights of official sponsors and have introduced new strong measures to clampdown on violations of Olympics related patents, trademarks and copyrights during the August8-24 Games. Under the new ruling all non sponsors’ advertisements featuring participants in the Beijing Olympics which includes athletes, coaches and officials will be suspended form the games. The China Advertising Association have also urged all Chinese advertising agencies and their 1.1 million employees to respect the new Olympic marketing rules and guard against ambush marketing. From July 11 to Sept 17, all prominent advertising sites in Beijing, including those at the airport, railway stations, main streets and areas around Olympic venues will be controlled and priority given to official Olympic sponsors. Similar to Athens as a condition of spectator entry if a row of spectators is found to be wearing the same logo on their clothes at a Beijing Olympic venue, they will be asked to conceal the brand names. Similar to Athens people will not be allowed to take drinks into venues and once inside will be able to buy only Coca-Cola, the global partner of the International Olympic Committee.adidas is a formal sponsor of the Games but many athletes are sponsored by rival companies like Nike. In the event a competitor wins wearing rival footwear they are obliged to collect their medals sporting adidas trainers. According to Wetzel (2000) shoe companies now use the teenage market to drive the multi billion dollar industry. In the past superstar endorsement, such as Nike and Mike Jordan has proven a winning partnership however companies are targeting younger players, reaching deep into high schools, even junior high in the hope of finding enduring talents. Marketing experts believe shoes are better sold at the "grass-roots" level by young basketball stars seen wearing the company's products. Nike, Adidas and Reebok sponsor some 280 high school teams and 180 summer-league teams in the US, plus dozens of camps and tournaments. Companies never disclose their annual promotional budgets the free shoes, apparel and travel are believed to run well into the millions. Critics say shoe companies have created a system that preys on youth ambition. At a recent adidas annual general meeting groups including Reporters Without Borders claimed companies sponsoring the Games are linking their brand with human rights violations in China, and some members of the German Olympic team were planning to wear protest armbands with the slogan "Sport for Human Rights" at the Games. adidas, Volkswagen and Puma, which is not an official partner but does supply equipment to participants, say they have so far seen no damage to their brands from the protests. Howeve adidas, which depends on Asia for about one-quarter of its annual sales of €7.2 billion, or $11.2 billion, cannot rule out a negative effect in the future.

Reference
Wetzel D Yaeger D 2000 Sole influence: Basketball, corporate greed, and the corruption of America’s youth Warner Books

Wearable Technology

2008-06-01T16:55:00.000-07:00

In 2004 the marathon runners traced the historic steps of Philippides from the coastal city of Marathon to the 1896 ancient Olympic stadium. The two significant differences were the runners wore shoes and these shies contained microchips tied to the laces. Along the course, every five miles, the runners passed an antenna that recorded their distance and speed. The inclusion of micro technology into footwear has to date been limited. To date there has been some exploration with microchips in military footwear for the purpose of global positioning identification, but in sports shoes there has been limited innovations with novelty lights, timepieces and now simple biofeedback. Shoes present a logical focus for wearable technology and according to experts unlike other articles of clothing that must be washed or cleaned, shoes present a more stable place to add useful electronics. adidas released prototype sports shoes with microchip technology, which continuously reconfigured its sole to provide a constant level of support whilst its wearer was running. The heel contained a sensor and magnet to gauge the cushioning needed and this data was relayed to a microprocessor with a drive train running from the motor to make adjustments. Every second, the sensor in the heel took up to 20,000 readings and the embedded electronic brain made 10,000 calculations, directing a tiny electric motor to change the shoe. The goal was to make the shoe adjust to changing conditions and the runner's particular style while in use. As each contact phase was made the sole of the shoe compressed, the new prototype adidas shoe, called adidas 1 , used its impact sensor, microprocessor and motorized cushioning system to reconfigure the level of shock-absorption provided by the shoe every four steps. The computer is housed in the arch of the running shoe holds a microprocessor built around a motor unit, along with a battery (must be replaced after 100 hours). Impulses from the control centre compresses or decompresses the sole every four paces, to maintain the same level of support. The athlete can fine tune cushioning by using the shoe's "user interface" which consists of two buttons that adjust for the runner's preference for softer or harder cushioning. Five light-emitting diodes display the setting. Rivals Nike, have been working on similar wearable technology but to date there have been no plans to use hi-tech shoes at the Beijing Olympiad.

Sportwear Apparel:You are your shoes

2008-05-24T14:17:00.000-07:00

Since the beginning of the Modern Olympics in Athens (1896), the uniforms of the athletes have been important. They were first used to discipline the events but then, as these became more popular through media interest, eventually they set a sartorial style for others to follow. Sociologists confirm consumption and display of what we wear confirms our identity and status in society. Sports shoes have become in the latter part of the 20th century the outward symbols of what we would like to be. To the 21st Century citizens athletic shoes evoke a fascination with power and style similar to previous generation’s preoccupation with cars. One phenomenon noted after the Olympics, is women take up popular team sports especially where national pride has been raised with medals. In 1994, sales for woman's athletic shoes surpassed men's. Growth in women's sport in the US is thought to have been come from 1972 Legislation Title IX . The mandated legislation ensured publicly funded programs offered equal opportunities to men and women, ensuring all athletes were given access to comparable athletic experiences. The IX helped nurture the pool of talented female athletes. Anxious to meet the new demand shoe companies responded with new lines of footwear for women. Today the clothing industry which surrounds sport is very profitable and fiercely competitive with Nike and Adidas-Salomon brand leaders with Reebok , Puma , Asics, Fila , and New Balance all close behind. Their presence will be made at the Beijing Olympiad in 2008. In 2002, Nike held a 34.1 per cent share of the international market, more than double second-place Adidas-Salomon, at 16.5 percent. Yet it is the latter that are licensed to supply more athletes at these years' games. Sports shoes remain the single most important product category for the profitability of athletic shoe and apparel brands. For marketing purposes many companies pay the elite ahtletes to endorse their products. This does not always assure all who wear the shoes will win the glittering prizes, although there is a degree of wishful thinking. Modern marketing strategies prefer to have a product associated with success. Sponsored athletes are usually allowed to train in their favourite brands but must compete in sponsored shoes. This does raise the spectre do specific shoes make the difference. Whilst there is no question competition times have dropped since 1896 e.g. in the 1930s Jesse Owen took 10.2 seconds to cover 100 meters and Asafa Powell , who holds the world record of 9.74 seconds. It is unlikely footwear has made any significant difference or contributed to record breaking times. No shoe can help an athlete perform better than their potential.

Oscar Pistorius

2008-05-23T16:37:00.000-07:00

Oscar Pistorius was born in South Africa with both fibula and other bones missing and had below knee amputations done before his first birthday. Now the 21 year old runs on carbon-fibre protheses called Cheetahs flex foot protheses, J shaped blades which has earned him the title the fastest man with no legs. At the last Paralympics he won a gold medal in the 200 m. Oscar has also competed in two international races against able-bodied athletes and was keen to do the same in Beijing, However his hopes were dashed earlier this year when the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) determined using Cheetahs would give the bilateral amputee an unfair advantage. Under rule 144.2 which prohibits technical devices that aid performance the IAAF commissioned research to determine the status of the prostheses. After due consideration of the evidence presented to them, they disqualified the runner from Olympic competition. Oscar Pistorius recently appealed the decision successfully winning him the right to compete with able-bodied athletes. The Court of Arbitration for Sports (CAS) in Lausanne, Switzerland, has ruled that Oscar Pistorius is eligible to participate in International Association of Athletics Federations sanctioned competitions. The original evidence presented to the IAAF was shown to fundamentally flawed and the scientists for Pistorius refuted the IAAF findings on two major points: the speed-duration relationship and rates of metabolic energy expenditure. If the runner qualifies for the 2008 Beijing games, Oscar Pistorius would be the first disabled athlete ever to run against able-bodied athletes in an Olympic event. The International Paralympic Committee may commission further research into the prosthetic equipment which is made by an Icelandic manufacturer of the Cheetah Flex-Foot prostheses (J-shaped, high-performance prostheses used for running).

The Paralympics Games

2008-05-17T03:03:00.000-07:00

The Paralymplic Games is a parallel competition for athletes with disabilities. The Paralympic Games in Beijing will take place between August 8th – 24th. The Wheelchair Games wa started as a rehabilitation program for British war veterans with spinal injuries by neurologist, Sir Ludwig Guttman in 1948. The neurologist had started using sports as part of spinal injury rehabilitation and as other spinal injury groups adopted the plan the competition grew. The first Stoke Mandeville Games or Wheelchair Games was run to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics. By 1952, competitors from the Netherlands gave the games an international dimension and the first Paralympics took place in 1960 in Rome and corresponded to the 9th Annual International Stoke Mandeville Games). Sir Ludwig Guttmann brought 400 wheelchair athletes to compete. The first Winter Paralympics were held in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden in 1976. The Summer Paralympics have been held in conjunction with the Olympic Games in the same host city since 1988. This practice was adopted in 1992 for the Winter Paralympics, and became an official policy of the International Olympic Committee and the IPC in 2001. The Paralympic Games take place three weeks after the closing of the Olympics, in the same host city and using the same facilities.

Past locations of Summer Paralympics

1948 - Stoke Mandeville, England
1960 - Rome, Italy
1964 - Tokyo, Japan
1968 - Tel Aviv, Israel
1972 - Heidelberg, Germany
1976 - Toronto, Canada
1980 - Arnhem, Netherlands
1984 - Stoke Mandeville & New York
1988 - Seoul, Korea
1992 - Barcelona, Spain
1996 - Atlanta US
2000 - Sydney, Australia
2004 - Athens, Greece
2008 – Beijing, China.

At Beijing there will be twenty sports are on the program with rowing making its first appearance in the Paralympics. The sports are: Archery, Athletics (track and field), Boccia, Cycling, Equestrian, Football 5-a-side, Football 7-a-side, Goalball, Judo, Powerlifting, Rowing, Sailing, Shooting, Swimming, Table tennis, Volleyball (sitting), Wheelchair basketball, Wheelchair fencing, Wheelchair rugby, Wheelchair tennis.

A brief history of the Modern Games

2008-05-09T03:04:00.000-07:00

1896 Athens
Twelve nations were represented and nine sports featured on the program. These were: athletics, cycling, fencing, gymnastics, lawn tennis, shooting, swimming, weightlifting and wrestling. The Olympic Hymn was composed by Spyros Samaras and the words added by Kostis Palamas. It was played when the Olympic Flag was raised. The Olympic Hymn was declared the official hymn by the IOC until 1957. In 1896, the first marathon was run. The length of 25 miles was approximately the same length Pheidippides (409 BCE) had covered at the first Olypmics. The winner of the hop, skip, and jump which was the first final event in 1896 was James B. Connolly (United States). He became the first Olympic champion of the modern Olympic Games. A French runner insisted in running in gloves because he was competing before royalty.

1900 Paris
This ran in conjunction with Run in the Paris Exhibition there were no opening or closing ceremonies. Over a thousand competitors took part in 19 different sports. Women took part in the games for the first time and Charlotte Cooper (tennis) became the first female Olympic champion. The decision to hold competitions on a Sunday brought protests from many American athletes, who travelled as representatives of their colleges and were expected to withdraw rather than compete on the sabbath.

1904 St Louis
This was the longest games and took five months to complete. Like Paris it was organised in conjunction with the World Fair. When marathon runner, Fred Lorz ran past the finishing looking fresh as a daisy it was revealed the US athlete had hitched a ride from a friendly lorry driver. Lorz was disqualified and banned from competition for life. The discission was later recanted and Fred went onto win several marathons, but not in the Olympics. The man who finished fourth in the St Louis marathon was called Felix Carvajal (Cuba). He was not an official representative of the country but had hitchhiked 700 miles to get to the race. Felix was postman from Cuba and paid to enter the marathon after collected enough cash by giving running demonstrations around Havana town square. On his way to St Louis he lost the money playing dice and had to beg the rest of the way. Carvajal ran in dress shoes and during the race stopped to practice his English. To amuse spectators he would run backwards as he chatted and joked. Sadly the amazing Felix Carvajal did not complete the race and collapsed suffering severe gastric pain due to diet of stolen green apples and peaches.

1906, Athens
In 1906 there were games held in Athens which were called the 1906 Olypic Games or the Intercalated Games. These games were not awarded the title of Olympiad because they were held between the III and IV Olympiads. While medals were distributed to the participants during these games, the medals are not officially recognized by the International; Olympic Committee (IOC).

1908, London
These games were originally scheduled for Italy but after Mount Vesuvius erupted in 1906 the venue was changed to London. Nineteen (19) nations took part with 1,500 competitors. The 1908 London Olympics saw the introduction of the first opening ceremony procession. The procession of athletes was led by the Greek team, followed by all the other teams in alphabetical order (in the language of the hosting country), except for the last team which is always the team of the hosting country. The 1908 London Olympics was not without politic intrigue when objections were made in regard the Irish and Finish teams wanting to display their national flags. These requests were refused but when the British Royal family made a request to extend the marathon start to Windsor Castle so that the royal children could witness the start, it was granted. The distance from the Windsor Castle to the Olympic Stadium was 42,195 meters (or 26 miles and 385 yards). Complaints by the British concerning qualified US athletes had cheated the 400m race was rescheduled. At the due time only one athlete turned up for the start and Wyndham Halswelle (GB), was declared the winner after he ran a solo 50.0. Motor Boating was an official sport at the 1908 Olympics and Discus thrower, Martin Sheridan maintained sartorial eloquence throughout competition by wearing sock garters.

1912 Stockholm
For the first time, competitors in the Games came from all five continents symbolized in the Olympic rings.The modern pentathlon was introduced at the instigation of Baron Pierre de Coubertin. The event symbolically depicted a messenger fighting his way through enemy lines. A Japanese marathon runner failed to complete the course when he stooped exhausted and joined a family on a picnic. He then fell asleep. This was the last Olympic Games where the gold medals made entirely out of gold. Today the Olympic medals are designed for each individual Olympic Games by the host city's organizing committee. Each medal must be at least three millimeters thick and 60 millimeters in diameter. Gold and silver Olympic medals must be made out of 92.5 percent silver, with the gold medal covered in six grams of gold.

1920 Antwerp
Twenty nine (29) countries were represented, although Germany, Hungary, Austria, Bulgaria and Turkey was excluded. The five ring flag and Olympic oath were introduced. The flag was created by Pierre de Coubertin in 1914 and contained five interconnected rings on a white background. The five rings symbolized the five significant continents and were interconnected to represent the friendship to be gained from friendly international competitions. The rings, from left to right, are blue, yellow, black, green, and red. The colors were chosen because at least one of them appeared on the flag of every country in the world. Pierre de Coubertin also wrote an Olympic oath for the athletes to recite at each Olympic Games. During the opening ceremonies, one athlete recites the oath on behalf of all the athletes. At the 1920 Olympic Games a Belgian fencer, Victor Boin was the first athlete to recite, "In the name of all competitors, I promise that we shall take part in these Olympic Games, respecting and abiding by the rules that govern them, in the true spirit of sportsmanship, for the glory of sport and the honor of our teams." French runner, Joseph Guillermot ran the 10,000m race just after he had eaten a large meal. On the finishing line he was sick over an opponent's shoes.

1924 Paris
Forty four countries sent 5,533 competitors to the 1924 Paris Olympics. The Games had a new motto "Citius, Altius, Fortius" (faster, higher, stronger). Pierre de Coubertin got the idea for this phrase from a speech given by Bishop Ethelbert Talbot at a service for Olympic champions during the 1908 Olympic Games. The Olympic Creed reads: "The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well." The Olympic marathon distance was standardized to 26 miles and 385 yards. Tennis champion Richard Norris Williams almost lost his legs as a survivor of the sinking of the Titanic. Exposed to the freezing water doctors seriously contemplated amputating them. After 1924 tennis was withdrawn as an Olympic sport and only reinstituted in 1988.

1928 Amsterdam
The Olympic flame was introduced and women were allowed to compete in athletics for the first time. After several competitors collapsed in the 800m, women were banned from taking part in events more than 200m. The ban was eventually lifted in 1960. The Olympic flame is a practice continued from the ancient Olympic Games and originally the flame was ignited by the sun and then kept burning until the closing of the Olympic Games. The flame itself represents a number of things, including purity and the endeavor for perfection.

1932 Los Angeles
Adverse economic factors (the Great Depression) and distance meant the Los Angeles event was less well attended although excellent conditions led to new world records in athletics. Track events were timed with manual stopwatches with twenty five people eyeballed the finish line and averaged their stopwatch results to find the winner. The Japanese team were accused of cheating when they were seen using oxygen tanks. To raise money to support the Norwegian athletes 40,000 people paid to walk through the unfinished subway system of Oslo.

1936 Berlin
In 1932, Richard Strauss was approached by the German representative to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to write an Olympic anthem for the German Games. Robert Lubahn won a competition to write the accompanying words and Strauss conducted the Olympsiche Hymne infront of Adolf Hitler. The torch relay was introduced and was lit at the ancient site of Olympia. by women wearing ancient-style robes and using a curved mirror and the sun. The Olympic Torch was passed from runner to runner from the ancient site of Olympia to the Olympic stadium in the hosting city. The flame is kept alight until the Games have concluded. The Olympic Torch relay represents a continuation from the ancient Olympic Games to the modern Olympics. Despite the political posturing by the Nazis and promotion of Aryan propaganda, the 1936 Berlin Olympics belonged to Jesse Owens. The four time gold medal winner wore adidas track shoes during his spectacular Olympic performance.

1948 London
Alice Coachman became the first women's champion when she secured gold in the high jump. This Olympics saw the introduction of wooden starting blocks which replaced the toe grooves. A photoelectric timing system to judge close finishes was also used for the first time. Runners broke through a cord which tripped an electronic sensor to record the time. Every male athlete in the British Olympic team was given a free pair of Y-fronts.

1952 Helsinki
The Soviets participated and Germany and Japan sent representatives to these games. Women and civilians were allowed to compete in dressage. Marjorie Jackson wore handmade kangaroo leather spikes when she won gold in 100m to become the first Australian woman to do so. On her return to Australia, crowds thronged to cheer her from Sydney to her hometown Lithgow, 150 kilometres away.

1956 Melbourne
Beset with boycott and quarantine, the Melbourne Games were the first to be televised. The world’s first semi-automatic swimming timer with an electromechanical display was introduced. Due to quarantine equestrian events could not be held in Australia and were held five months earlier in Stockholm, Sweden. Eastern Block athletes were seen wearing brightly coloured shoes between events which transpired to be trainers and the Japanese swimming team wore ceremonal getas (platform sandals) on the way to competiton. Both styles of shoe crossed over into fashion after the games.

1960 Rome
A total of 84 nations participated and Cassius Clay (USA), later known as Muhammad Ali, won boxing's light-heavyweight gold medal. Ethiopian, Abebe Bikila became the first African athlete to win gold when he won the marathon in bare feet.

1964 Tokyo
A total of 94 nations were represented but South Africa was barred from taking part due to its refusal to racially desegregate. Billy Mills, an American Indian borrowed shoes and won the 10,000m. American sponsors thought so little of his chances, they refused to give him shoes. He won by 10m, in 28:24, an Olympics record.

1968 Mexico
The only South American Olympics was played out against turbulent political unrest. Tommie Smith and John Carlos made their brave barefoot protest. Australia's silver medalist Peter Norman, showed solidarity on the winner’s podium by wearing a Olympic Project for Human Rights (OPHR) badge. Norman suggested that Smith and Carlos share the black gloves used in their salute, after Carlos had left his gloves in the Olympic Village. This is the reason for Tommie Smith raising his right fist, while John Carlos raised his left. Asked about his support of Smith and Carlos' cause by the world's press, Norman said he opposed his country's government's White Australia policy. Brush Spikes replaced the traditional 4-spike running shoe.

1972 Munich
The first official Olympic mascot was a dachshund called Waldi. The popular breed was thought to demonstrate resistance, tenacity, and agility, all of which are ideal traits for athletes. Sadly however Munich became known as the Black September Games and is remembered for the slaying of 11 Israeli athletes. After winning the 10,000 m., Lasse Virén did a lap of honour barefoot holding his running shoes aloft. This is thought to represent the first publicity stunt to promote the brand. Nike introduced wedged heeled running shoes and the Pakistan hockey team protested at the poor refereeing in the final then refused their silver medals as runners up. Eventually the team recanted and some chose to wear them on their shoes. The entire team was suspended.

1976 Montreal
The Canadian Olympics were full of controversy and ran well over budget. There were several accusations of cheating. The mascot for Montreal Olympics was Amik the friendly beaver. He was chosen because he was a native of Canada and beaver are generally thought to be hard working. Again Super Fin, Virén ran a barefoot lap of honour to celebrate a gold medal victory in the 10,000 metre race. He held his Ascis runners aloft for the benefit of the cameras.

1980 Moscow
Eighty-one nations participated but Liberia withdrew after marching in the Openning Cermony. This was the lowest number since 1956, but despite this there were 203 events which was more than at any previous Olympics. As a form of protest against the USSR intervention in Afghanistan, fifteen countries marched in the Opening Ceremony with the Olympic Flag instead of their national flags, and the Olympic Flag and Olympic Hymn were used at Medal Ceremonies when athletes from these countries won medals. New Zealand competed under its association flag. The US team boycotted by the Games. The mascot was a bear called Misha which was designed by Victor Chizokov.

1984 Los Angeles
The Soviet Union team boycotted the LA Games. Barefoot runner Zola Budd (born in South Africa) was unable to complete until she took British Citizenship. She ran in the final of the 3000m, against US favourite, Mary Decker. Budd, the barefooted pacesetter, stumbled after Decker accidentally spiked her heel, neither recovered leaving Maricica Puica of Romania, a clear winner. The mascot for Los Angles Olympics was Sam the Olympic Eagle and was designed by Disney artists.

1988 Seoul
159 nations were represented by a total of 8391 athletes (2194 women and 6197 men) in these games and 237 events were held. Ben Johnson was exposed as a drug cheat and Carl Lewis proved a winner. Florence "Flo-Jo" Griffith-Joyner put sartorial style into women's track events but much later was shown to use performance enhancing drugs. The Seoul mascot was Hodori the tiger cub. Hodori is a well known character in Korean legends and portrays the friendly and hospitable traditions of the Korean people.

1992 Barcelona
For the first time since Munich 1972 Olympics there was almost a full turn of IOC countries with the exception of Afghanistan. South Africa was allowed again to participate after a 28 years suspension in the Olympic Games for its apartheid policy. The mascot for Barcelona was Cobi the sheepdog. The Cubist-inspired Catalan Sheepdog was very Picassoesque and proved to be the more commercially successful mascot to date.

1996 Atlanta
Mohammad Ali lit the Olympic flame and Michael Johnson wore mustard coloured Nikes when he won the 400m. As a celebration he tossed his gilded shoes into the crowd. Beach volleyball became an Olympic event and remains the only event to be played barefoot. Track and field photo finishes were computerized in colour for the first time. Izzy the Mascot was an animated character resembling an amorphous amoeba. Arguably Izzy (or Watizit) was the least popular mascot and was banned by the Olympic Committee from appearing at the opening and closing ceremonies. Izzy remained conspicuously absent before, after, and during the 1996 Atlanta Games.

2000 Sydney
Sydney was the biggest games to date with 10,651 athletes competing in 300 events. Maurice Green sported the famous gold shoes when he retained the 400m gold. His shoes were made by Nike and 3M with reflective material made from 24 karat gold. Nike made nine pairs of gold shoes for the supreme athlete. Marathon runners wore microchips in their shoes for the first time. The Olympic mascots for Sydney 2000 were Olly, Syd and Millie. Olly (Olympics) is a kookaburra, representing the Olympic spirit of generosity. Syd (Sydney) is a platypus, representing the environment and energy of the people of Australia. Millie (millennium) is an echidna representing the historic date. Fatso the Fat-Arsed Wombat became the unofficial mascot of the games and represented a protest over the commercialization of Olympic mascots.

2004 Athens
Athens 2004 marked the first time since the 1996 Summer Olympics that all countries with a National Olympic Committee were in attendance. The lighting ceremony of the Olympic flame took place at the Ancient Olympia. For the first time ever, the flame travelled around the world in a relay to former Olympic cities and other large cities, before returning to Greece. The mascots of the 2004 Athens Olympics were two figures Athena and Phevos inspired by ancient Greek terra-cotta figurines. In Greek myths, Athena was the Goddess of Wisdom and the capital of Greece was named after her; Phevos was the God of Light and Music.

2008 Beijing
The mascots for Beijing 2008 or Fuwa are five figures to represent the five Olympic Rings. Each figure is in the colour of the rings blue, yellow, black, green, and red respectivley and are designed to express the playful qualities of five little children who form an intimate circle of friends. The figures represent China's most popular animals i.e the Fish (Beibei – prosperity), the Panda (Jingjing - happyness), the Tibetan Antelope (Yingying – health and strengh), the Swallow (Nini – good luck) and the Olympic Flame (Huanhauan - passion). When the names of the five are put together i.e. Bei Jing Huan Ying Ni this can be translated as "Welcome to Beijing."

The XXXIX Olympiad

2008-05-08T16:00:00.000-07:00

The XXXIX Olympiadis almost upon us again, and a feast of fetes guaranteed, no doubt. Certainly as a catwalk of footwear technology there is no bigger event and all the main exponents of sports apparel will be there, obviously anxious their drawing board innovations cut ice in the hot temperatures of China’s capitol. An Olympiad is a period of four successive years and the modern Olympic Games celebrate each Olympiad. Due to Wars, the 1916, 1940 and 1944 Olympiads were not celebrated by an Olympic Games. The Olympic Games and the Paralympic Games are hosted in Beijing, China. As in Athens 2004 , medal winning footwear will feature three main assets: lightness, durability, and ability to keep the feet cool in summer temperatures in Beijing (excess of 35 0C or 1000 F). After all the elite athlete’s preparations, blisters may be the scourge of the games so designers and technologists have continued their focus on how best to encase the active foot without encouraging sweaty feet (hyperidrosis). In this Olympic Games there are 28 recognised sports and 301 events most of which put the human foot to the limits of endurance, no surprise to learn the footwear will represent the accumulated knowledge of shoe making, known to humans.

Walk to school

2008-05-01T03:49:00.000-07:00

To encourage children to exercise, 2008 is the year of walking to school. Throughout the world there are promotions set to encourage regular exercise. Australia kicks off 2nd May and UK soon after and the US in October. Others are aiming for October 2008.

Related sites
walk.com.au

What are foot orthoses?

2008-04-27T02:56:00.000-07:00

Since the 70s the humble arch support taken on a new life of it own with the introduction of pedal mechanics. The history of arch supports coincides with the fear of flat feet which has been a Judo-Christian pre-occupation for thousands of years. Belief man (not woman) was made in the image of God (this has recently changed in PC versions of the scriptures), meant Christian Art always represented the male form in painting and sculpture with a well formed arch. In truth feet flatten during locomotion but arch feet took on a far more sinister connotation during the 18th and 19th centuries when Europe was pro-occupied with antis-emetic anthropometry. Flat feet were deemed Jewish feet and as a condition was associated with laziness, sloth behaviour and lack of general fitness. The arch support fitted to shows became the saving grace and turned human failing into a god like supremacy. By the 19th and 20th century the world was pre-occupied with muscular Christianity and with games became a healthy pastime. This peaked in the 30s with the cult of physical culture and once again the arch support was there to support Colossus or anyone else for that matter with weak arches. The perceived allopathic action of the arch support was to replace the missing curve under the medial longitudinal arch of the foot. Standing and walking over the arch support gave the foot support and rested strains that might be otherwise are associated with a flat foot. For some people these were very comfortable whereas other found them painful to wear. Like so many other panaceas for the foot quietly most people took them out and forgot about them. By the seventies better understanding of three dimensional movement was possible through kinetic, kinematic and kinesiology analysis. This led directly to a relaunch of interest in foot orthosis (orthosis meaning straight) with the drive mainly coming from podiatrists. Photographic gait analysis provided much needed framed activity with which scientists could analyse foot ground contact and quickly a feasible hypothesis was developed in California which attempted to describe the foot and ground activity during weight bearing. By 1977, the publication of Normal and abnormal function of the foot by Root, O’Rien and Weed saw the establishment of the subtalar joint theorem as a credible description of foot mechanics. This held considerable sway with the foot orthotic industry that began to reinvent the old arch support as a vehicle to control rearfoot motion and balance the foot through propulsion. Unfortunately absence of more sophisticated analytical instrumentation prevented detailed enquiry and subsequently many of the claims for foot orthoses remain without proof. Overall however most people find the devices not uncomfortable. Shoe inlays (aka foot orthoses) can be divided into two groups. Functional Foot Orthoses are capable of controlling functional pathology of the foot and leg by restricting the full range of joint motion. Middle range motion is maintained with the use of wedges or posts and high impact resistant plastics are used for this purpose. The device consists of a shell of heel cup and lateral platform to the ball of the foot. The shell shape mirrors the contours of the weight bearing foot throughout the complete stance phase. Additions of wedges and levers to balance with horizontal ground surface assist in stability reducing patho-mechanical changes (damage to tissues cause by instability). By wedging, tilting and lifting foot segments during propulsion this is thought to help the lever action of the lower limb during closed chain motion. Simply put a series of lifts and levers are used to prevent body compensations for perceived foot and leg deformities. These may be either bony or muscular. Abnormal compensations resulting in patho-mechanical changes are considered to be the cause the majority of painful symptoms associated with foot pronation during the propulsive phase of gait. Accommodative Foot Orthoses provide the weight bearing foot with increased shock absorption and pressure redistribution. A series of semi rigid synthetics are used for this purpose and the devices may be bespoke or bought over the counter. Functional and Accommodative devices appear similar and it requires a good working knowledge of material science to discriminate between them. It is common to prescribe combination foot orthoses which exhibit properties of both functional and accommodative foot orthoses. With the onset of cinematography and particularly video, the ability to observe cyclic activity such as walking has become a reality. Interest in rehabilitation concentrated the efforts of clinicians and bioengineers to develop models of normalcy. The Root Paradigm was one popular method of describing foot function during the walking cycle. What is not in dispute is the foot is considered to have four separate functions during the cycle: decelerator and shock absorber; mobile adapter to ground surface; rigid lever; & accelerator. The total time to complete stance phase is 6/10 of a second in normal walking. This is much less in running. The point where deceleration is overtaken by acceleration corresponds to mid stance (i.e. single stance support when the heels are in apposition). Root et al took this as the subtalar neutral position and defined the hypothetical relationships between forefoot to rear foot and rear foot to leg. Deviations were defined as fixed plane deformities in time and described using standard orthopaedic nomenclature. The purpose of the functional orthosis is to replace the difference between actual foot leg relationships with hypothetical normal, at mid stance. The amount of torque and twist as body weight passes over the shell is considerable at this point. Hence the need to incorporate high impact resistant plastics with rigid properties. Lifts and levers can be made from rigid or semi rigid components. Most over the counter foot orthoses incorporate semi rigid materials simply as a fail safe mechanism. A second and separate management of the foot relates to shock attenuation. During the stance phase there are two peak shocks to the musculo-skeletal system. The first occurs just after heel strike and the second, just prior to the heel lifting off the ground. Synthetic materials have the ability to modify vertical shock forces at the critical stages during the stance phase to prevent jarring to the system. This property is referred to as shock attenuation. The material must be able to react to repeated shock waves without exhibiting permanent set. In releasing strain energy an insole material should be able to return to its original shape, thus exhibiting good elastic memory. Throughout contact phase materials need to be able to adjust continuously to equalise underfoot pressure. This is known as an Isobaric Action. At critical temperatures plastic foams change shape to accommodate the sole of the foot and as a result ground reaction forces are spread over wider surfaces providing a waterbed or isotactic effect. The material next to the skin should present a friction free surface to prevent kinetic energy being converted to heat. Materials with low thermal conductivity insulate the skin surfaces and prevent loss of heat from tissues. This is particularly helpful in people with poor circulation. Clearly not all manufactured insoles provide these properties but many over the counter inlays have the potential to do so. From experience the best combination are cellular or non cellular polyurethane elastomers as the base for the inlays with closed cell cross linked polyethylene foam as a top cover. The torque placed on plastic inlays when a person stands, walks and runs over them would be the equivalent of a medium sized elephant pirouetting. The most innovative new material now incorporated into foot gear is viscoelastic. These materials are liquid and gas and should not exist as a solid. By clever manipulation of the polymer structure viscoelastic now appear as soft solids. Pressures cannot pass through this material and they are used to reduce peak shock during heel strike. For example normal shock at heel strike would be the equivalent force applied to the head resulting in whiplash during a car crash. Often this viscoelastic material is caught in the heel of the sports shoe.

Fast Shoes are not Olympic Shoes

2008-04-24T17:58:00.001-07:00

The fastest shoes on earth are not running shoes but rail riding shoes, which cost in excess of $200 (US) per pair. What makes these shoes a little special is the adaptation they have on their soles. Each shoe sole is fitted with metal grooves (or runner) for sliding down hand railings. The speeds reached by rail riders are very high and of course this fast growing street sport is causing urban mayhem. Many broken legs and sprained ankles have been reported and that is only the rail riders. Great concern has been expressed for the safety of innocent people whose misfortune it is to meet a young adult in full flight. The craze started in the US and already the shoes have been banned from many schools. Another wheelie fad yet to peak is the foldaway scooter. Our urban fascination with wheels goes back to before the beginning of the last century when the wheel was rediscovered with a vengeance. First cycling revolutionised women’s clothing then later children took to building carts or bogies. Usually a wooden crate with four pram wheels, the make shift racing cars became a valued part of a kids toy collection. Later by the middle of the twentieth century when surfing became established street kids modified their bogies and swapped their pram wheels for ones made from clay. New innovations were made to the trucks or devices, which held the wheels to the board and improved manoeuvrability meant city and town kids could sidewalk surf. A decade later the popular pastime gained greater popularity with the introduction of professional boards and new promotions including professional demonstrators. Soon organised competitions were introduced and by the end of the sixties international contests were common place with even a movie and magazines available to the devotees of the wee wheels. Cities began to ban skateboards in response to health and safety concerns and for a while anyway bad press concerning fatal accidents caused the industry to dip in sales. Skateboard became an underground activity contained to only certain areas. When the polyurethane wheels were discovered skateboarding took on a new life. Further modification meant the new skateboards were easier to use, more reliable and the perfect vehicle for pedestrian manoeuvrability. Skateboard parks began to spring up all over the place as the skateboard design was lengthened to give greater stability on vertical forces. Accidents however continued to be dog the new recreation and when skateboard insurance escalated many parks had no choice but to close. The BMX craze took over and again skateboarding fell out of favour. By the 80's exhibition and competition skateboarding still held its attraction for some but it was only when companies started to target street kids did the extreme sport eventually take hold. In the 90's the popular move from competition to freestyle skateboarding meant boarders (now called slashers) could ride the freeways and did not have to rely on skateboard parks again. Clever marketing paid off and along with the new Thrasher Image* the movement introduced casual clothes to youths. Skateboard shoes, another mutation of the canvas trainers, such as Vans, Airwalk and Vision Streetwear began selling in huge quantities to young people around the world. 1992 the Western World rediscovered the new craze of inline skates and its impact was felt on snow, surf and street fashion.

* Influenced by hardcore punk style incorporating the clothing worn by US, Hispanic street gangs. Thrashers or SK8'ers listen to heavy metal music.

Brief History of the Plimsoll: The Grandfather of Sport Shoes

2008-04-22T01:07:00.000-07:00

The plimsoll marked the beginning of the modern sport shoe and its origins are linked to the 19th century railways in the UK and the new habit of working class city dwellers taking annual trips to the seaside. Visits to the seashores by daytrippers in working boots seemed out of character so many chose to wear the new lightweight canvas topped rubber soled shoes because they were cheap and ideal for the sand. These were called sand shoes. At first the cotton canvas topped shoe had a sole made from leather, jute or rope but the footwear was flimsy and wore out quickly. Then the New Liverpool Rubber Company developed a light shoe which combined a cotton canvas top to a rubber sole. Sand shies were still vulnerable to separate so a thin rubber band was wrapped around the whole shoe trapping the join between the canvas and rubber sole. This made the footwear far more robust and the new style was called a plimsoll after the white plimsoll lines on ships which was introduced in 1876. Plimsolls wore well, kept the feet cool in the summer and dried quickly after a paddle in the sea. Canvas topped plimsolls could be painted with chalk white which give the outward impression they were croquet shoes (made form kangaroo skin). White plimsolls became a fashion item for all Victorian promenaders, keen to look their best in the Madras jackets and flannels. As the middle classes became more interested in leisure activities and sport, the plimsoll evolved into many other forms. When cinder and grass tennis courts were in vogue rubber soled plimsolls were used extensively. Sole patterns were added and patented to add grip and court adhesion and the new Croquet and tennis shoes did not destroy the lawn surfaces. Rubber soled shoes helped soften the landing of a long jumper as well as being eminently suited for yachting. Plimsolls were openly worn by adults and children in the pursuit of sport. Soon the Services used them and ordered plimsolls in the ten of thousands all coloured to suit the army, navy and airforce. Service plimsolls became a popular demob souvenir as well as becoming compulsory wear for children at school as physical exercise (gym) became an accepted part of the formal curriculum. Plimsolls were found with Scott on his Antarctic expedition (1901-1904) as well as at the first Paris Olympics (1924). As time passed the plimsoll was further developed to meet requirements of both major and minor popular sports. A simple rubber strip was used as a toe box to stop the big toe nail appearing through the canvas. This also stopped the weakest part of the upper from abrasion in those sports where the foot was dragged for balance. The hockey boot incorporated moulded studs into the rubber sole. The cycle shoe was easily adapted to speed running by the application of metal spikes to the area of the sole under the ball of the foot. Spikes gradually grew longer and longer until they were approximately two inches long. These could be adjusted to suit the ground conditions. When foam rubber was invented in-socks were applied to the shoes adding to the comfort. Later in the 50s man made fibres became available and the plimsoll and sneaker merged to become the trainer shoe. The development of synthetics materials had a profound effect on the sports shoe. Hard, durable nylon soles provided lightweight, flexible and capable of supporting studs for football and spikes for athletics. Cellular foams increased the fit and comfort. The trainer had a two colour finish, low heel, rippled sole without an instep. It was used by the athletes as warm up and training footwear and first made its appearance at the Melbourne Olympics, 1956. The use of contrasting colours for reinforcement areas gave the training shoe its distinctive characteristics. Since then the trainer has became a fashion item worn by all in society and certainly not restricted to sports’ persons.

History of Biomechanics

2008-04-18T23:49:00.001-07:00

It may appear the French Revolution, Charlie Chaplin, War, Wine and NASA have nothing in common but they do and it is called biomechanics. The term is used more and more in everyday language and has come to mean the study of normal human movement. Patho-mechanics is the technical term for abnormal movement but is often restricted to medical text. At the time of the French Revolution, people, especially poor people, started to matter. The traditional hospitals had been glorified brothels where literally people went to die, usually in great pain and distress. New and increased concerns for the proletariat however meant radical change in health care with the establishment of teaching hospitals. Clinical experts were available to teach as well as practice. In the La Gaze (the beginning of medical specialisation), medics referred to all body systems as biomechanics. Modern interpretation takes rather narrower meaning preferring biomechanics to mean human movement only, but originally this was a term used to describe a complete biological system. Throughout history many researchers have tried to analyse walking but it took to the introduction of cinematography before real insights were made. Even today the strides made in the early 20's and 30's have not yet been surpassed. With the invention of photography frame by frame analysis of walking allowed observation of detail not obvious to the naked eye. The two men most associated with the technique were Eadweard Muybridge and Étienne-Jules Marey and their works are still referred too. Frame by frame analysis helped researchers make special sense of the abnormal human locomotion which had enormous potential for orthopaedic surgery. Anthropometry i.e. the identification system based on physical measurements of the body was created by Alphonse Bertillon a French law enforcement officer. He believed criminals were an inferior species and had physical defects which could be identified by measurement. Not only did he develop the first scientific system police used to identify criminals but also introduced the mug shot and the systematisation of crime-scene photography. Bertillon was the first to include footprint analysis. At is height, anthropometry or Bertillonage as it was known was widely used by French police and in other European countries but it was eventually replaced by fingerprinting. Anthropometry continued to be used by scientists developing growth charts and clothing size systems, and eventually became in common use in sport science. By far the most celebrated person to see a pratical use for biomechanics was Sir Charlie Chaplin who regularly filmed scenes backwards, then to the amusement of millions would show the films unning forward at higher speeds. No one has knows why people find silly walks amusing but the do and made Charlie Chaplin a very rich man and household name. By the fifties, North Americans were conserned at the increasing numbers of wounded veterans returning from Korea then later the Vietnam War. Appalled at the apparent lack of research and development in the science of rehabilitation for amputees and those physically afflicted the public outcry put greater political pressures on the government to introduction of a national rehabilitation initiative. Coincidentally this occurred when North Americans were alarmed at Russian dominance for space exploration. Zillions of dollars were pored into the US aerospace industry and science education in general. During this period it is reported that on a plane flying to Seattle were two strangers, both on route to attend separate conferences. One was the director for new US Rehabilitation Research and Development Program, the other the NASA supremo. After a few cocktails and the ice broken, they started a casual conversion to pass away the travelling hours. After the introductions the aeronautical engineer rather boldly suggested,

"Do you know if we made aeroplanes like you make false knees then our planes would never get off the ground?”

"What do you mean?" came the puzzled reply".

"You chaps try to replace the knee with something that looks like a human knee whereas we design a plane to defy gravity using the laws of nature."

That was the beginning of a very long and fruitful relationship between the two men and was also the birth of biomedical engineering or modern biomechanics. They agreed to meet after their respective conferences in a city park and one brought a couple of bottles of wine and the other bread. The aeronautical engineer suggested an experiment that with each sip of wine the friends had they should feed the ducks a wine soaked piece of bread. After several bottles of wine, the aeronautical engineers suggested his companion stand and try to walk in a straight line. The effects of alcohol caused the rehab expert to stagger and when he returned to his seat the engineered observed, “Watch the ducks walk.” Despite consuming the same volume for size of alcohol as the men, the ducks continued to maintain a straight line walking.” He asked his friend to explain why the alcohol appeared to have no adverse effect on the duck’s gait. Once they had agreed there was no significant physiological reason it had to be something to do with the body’s centre of gravity i.e the lower the centre of gravity the greater stability. Imbalance through intoxication caused humans to stagger whereas the broadbase of the dase kept them stable throughout. From that keen observation the science of orthoses and prostheses changed to reflect Newtonian Physics and Momentum Physics with emphasis of three and four (time) dimensional analysis. Combined with cinematography, anthropometry, force and pressure analysis, modern biomechanics has been incorporated into sports science and forms a major part of preparing elite athletes for the Olympic Games. Today, biomechanical analysis helps commentators understand the intricacies of movement that are unseen by the naked eye and also assists sportwear designers to manufacture performance enhancing footwear and swim suits, the effects of which are so eagerly awaited by spectators in expectation of record breaking performances.

Brief History of Athletic Shoes

2008-04-15T16:00:00.000-07:00

The resurgence in running brought about by the English in the 18th century meant the development of a light weight shoe which could grip the ground. The nineteenth century saw the introduction of an all leather spiked, running shoe. The need for greater speed in the modern games necessitated further refinement of lightweight shoes with improved traction. Competition shoes were made from leather and fitted tightly to the foot but because they were not waterproofed, the leather stretched making them useless for running. In 1832, Wait Webster patented a process whereby rubber soles could be attracted to the shoes and boots. By the 1860s a croquet shoe was available made with a rubber sole and a canvas upper that fastened with laces. Movement in the canvas topped rubber shoes was noiseless and quickly adopted by sneak thieves, gaining the name “sneakers.” By the turn of the century the development of the plimsoll gave a cheap serviceable shoes and these were quickly adapted to children’s wear. Spiked shoes for running were developed in 1852 and by 1894 the Spalding Company catalogue featured three grades of spiked footwear. Low cut, made from kangaroo leather uppers, the soles had six spikes. These shoes cost $6.00. This was very expensive at the time when an average family of four survived on $11 per week. Specialty shoes for the bicycle boom of the 1860s and 70s saw the introduction of heel-less shoes for cyclists. These were lightweight and had eight or ten eyelets. The shoe was extensively advertised in 1890s. Competitive sports was very much the pastime of the affluent. Joseph William Foster founded the first sports shoe company in Boulton, UK in the 1890's. His grandson later took over in 1958 and renamed the firm, Reebok. The Bolton based company in England did make shoes for Lord Burghley in the 1924 Olympics. These were thin leather shoe made from rigid leather. In 1907 one company began stitching a leather strip round the top of the shoe to form a collar, and this helped to reduce stretching. This was the beginning of the various dashes which now form standard design for modern sports shoes. According to Valerie Steele, the first popular sneaker was introduced in the United States in 1917 under the name of Keds. The K is thought to stand for kids and the term is rhyming slang for ped (s) i.e. Latin for foot. Keds were tennis shoes. In 1917 the higher boot for basketball was introduced by Converse and the shoe was known as the Converse All Stars (Pattison & Cawthorne, 1997). In 1923 his signature appeared on the ankle patch and henceforth the shoes were known as Chucks. The popularity of tennis in the 1920s meant many adults wore canvas topped shoes for recreation. The father of the modern running shoe was Adolf Dassler who began making shoes in 1920. By 1936 his shoes were internationally acknowledged as the best and were worn by athletes of the calibre of Jesse Owens. Dassler specialised in shoes designed for sport. After the lean war years he continued to progress and developed the training shoe made from surplus tent canvas and rubber from fuel tanks. In 1948 he founded Adidas but the company was soon to split into Addas (later known as Adidas) and Puma. To give support to the running shoe Dassler added three side strips to the shoe which first appeared in 1949. Throughout this post war period the demand for leisure footwear grew. The fitness craze of the 30s meant sneakers became associated with sports and leisure activities. In 1936 the US Basketball Team adopted the Converse Chucks as the official shoe. In the same year Dassler's running shoes were worn at the Berlin Olympics. By the 1950s famous runners were supplied shoes free and gratis. At the discretion of the athlete, they either wore socks or not. This would imply the shoe was a very tight fit. Nowadays modern synthetic shoes are made of lightweight mesh fabric uppers and lightweight synthetic soles chosen for maximum flexibility and comfort. Running shoes have no heel and this provides the necessary leverage for toe spring, which propels the runner’s legs forward. Competition between shoe companies was fierce and many athletes were unofficially approached to wear brand names. According to Jennings (1996), From the Melbourne Olympics, 1956, Adidas executives were alleged to have offered bribes to athletes to wear shoes made by that firm. In 1962, New Balance introduced the first scientifically tested shoe and this weighed 96 grams. In 1968 brush spikes were introduced and replaced the traditional four spike running shoe. The 1976 Montreal Olympics was the first time an athlete was photographed endorsing his running shoes after winning 10,000 metre race. Such public endorsement was well rewarded by the companies which produced the goods. The first Olympics to be televised were Mexico and promoters wasted no time displaying their brand insignias on the champions for the world to see. Before these shoe advertisements showing Olympians receiving their glittering prizes and wearing branded shoes had to have their faces blotted out. The sight of Tommy Smith photographed in his Puma Suedes giving the Black Power fist was a powerful image closely identified by many young people around the globe. At this time it was alleged track athletes were given monetary rewards for wearing certain competition shoes. In 1973 track athlete Steve Profontane became the first major track person to wear Nikes. Olympian Jon Anderson and tennis player Ilie Nastase soon followed as Nike wearers. Jimmy Connors won Wimbledon and US Open wearing his Nike tennis shoes. In 1978 John McEnroe signed an endorsement with the company. Many of his antics, including kiss the ground were thought to be a way of highlighting his sponsor's gear. All of which was swallowed by an eager set of consumers. When the aerobics explosion took place Reebok saw the market potential and began to make sneakers in softer materials and in colours appropriate female tastes. The shoes were less rigid in construction. In 1984/5 Nike signed Michael Jordan for $2.5 million and the Air Jordan were born. In the Atlanta Olympics, 1996 the battle between manufacturers of shoes was at its height. Reebok were the official footwear supplier but other companies launched massive promotions. Much ambush advertising was in evidence with Nike attempting to promote the rings logo on their track and sportswear kits. Are sport shoes made for feet? The answer is no. Shoes are made to a last which is a model of the foot, but not an exact anatomical replica. The last has not changed its design that much for decades and before the nineteenth hundreds, for centuries before. The last model is really a tool for mass production and whilst it is recognised as a foot, when sized up or downwards, the complete dimension of the last is proprietary changed. This means the breadth of the heel and ball increase by the same proportion for the shoe but these dimensions would not be found in the human foot. The most important feature of sport shoes is they are stable on the foot and must hold the human heel in the heel seat of the shoe. Hence the soccus or slipper component of the sport shoe exhibits the combined conventional wisdom of shoemakers from the beginnings of time. The rigours of sport necessitate the inclusion of reinforcements and this is done to a greater or lesser extent, today, by the choice of material combination. The rest is down to fashion and the manufacturer's logo. According to Hunter (1991) most shoe manufacturers imply injury is due to the anatomy of individual who happens to be constructed incorrectly. Obligingly they amend their products regularly in an attempt to counteract these mainly imaginary skeletal defects. More and more shoe manufacturers appear engrossed in trumpeting their patented designs as well as knocking their rivals.

References
Hunter B 1991 The game's afoot Brisbane; CopyRight Publishing
Jennings A 1996 The newlords of the rings London: Pocket Books
Pattison A Cawthorne N 1997 A century of shoes NSW: Universal International
Steele V Shoes: lexicon of style London : Scriptum Editions

Origins of Athletic Sandals

2008-04-14T16:12:00.000-07:00

In the ancient games the competitors ran barefoot but as the Greek Empire extended more athletes from colder climates came to race wearing sandals. At first spectators and barefoot competitors treated these as a novelty and sign of parochialism. As soon as shod athletes became winners then public opinion changed and the wearing of sandals was viewed with great suspicion and associated with cheats. Eventually once it was recognised the sole of the sandal increased ground traction and propelled the leg forward with greater efficiency most athletes adopted the running sandal. The sole of the sandal needed to be securely attached to the foot and this necessitated leather thongs wrapped to the ankle and sometimes above. Between the Greek and Roman Civilisations there existed a small, almost obscured civilisation known as the Etruscans. They lived in North Italy and were well known for many crafts including sandal making. The Etruscans developed a technique to attach the sole of the sandal to the upper of the shoe with metal tacks. Before this time sandals were flimsy and broke easily. Tacks held the shoes together and coincidentally offered greater sole traction to the ground. This simple innovation was the beginning of the running shoe. The Romans faced another challenge with the crude track shoes could that was how best secure it next to the foot and this was achieved by using tongs (leather ties) wrapped around the foot and leg. After the Fall of the Roman Empire the craft of sandal making was almost lost to the world. Throughout the Middle Ages sports were played in different cultures but it was the British in the 17th and 18th centuries that appeared to keep up the Greek traditions of racing in a straight line. As the influence of the British Empire with its concentration on militaria and discipline permeated throughout Europe and the colonies, many were taken with the idea of competition and fair play. Frenchman, Baron Pierre de Coubertin saw a window of opportunity and wanted to bring trading nations together on the field of athletics. This was a good commercial opportunity for suppliers to manufacture sport's clothing and footwear. More recently the athletic sandal has made several reappearances and in different guises. The exercise sandal was very popular during the nineteen sixties and early 70s. It was never very clear weather the shoe 'exercised' the foot by its intrinsic shape, or was the ideal footgear to take exercise in. Shaped like the sole of the foot the shoe combined the properties of a simple sandal with a clog. They remain popular to the present day. With the introduction of extreme sport such as water rafting, the athletic sandal has been given a new lease of life. The trend started by Mark Thatcher, not the male offspring of Baroness Thatcher, but an entrepreneur she might be proud of. After Thatcher lost his job as a geophysicist he dedicated himself to his hobby of white water rafting. A source of continual annoyance to Thatcher and his friends was the flip flops they wore, constantly wash away. He designed a prototype sandal which would not leave the foot. The sandal with a heel strap was called Teva. This is Hebrew for "nature". The natural sandal held fast even in the most trying of circumstances. The new sporting thongs come in a pretty price and would set you back as much as a pair of moderately priced sports shoes. The Teva success was repeated more recently with Crocs. The Melbourne Olympics (1956), was the first televised event and when the Japanese swimming team appeared wearing getas (slip on clogs) prior to competition, the photo opportunity was enough for a clever shoe retailer to start selling jandals to the Kiwi,s and thongs to the Australians. Now flip flops are a world wide phenomenon.

Modern Games, Torch Relay, and the Five Rings

2008-04-14T15:52:00.000-07:00

The modern Olympic Games were first held in Athens, Greece in 1896. They were the result of efforts by Baron Pierre de Coubertin, a French educator, who wanted to promote interest in education and culture, as well as foster better international understanding through the universal medium of athletics. His source of inspiration was the ancient Greek Olympic Games and at first he enlisted nine nations to send athletes to the first modern Olympics. Today more than 100 nations compete. The Winter Olympic Games were started in 1924. There is nothing other than an ideal to associate the modern games with the ancient Olympics. Today the gathering has become the biggest commercial promotion on Earth. The origins of the Olympic torch came much later and appear in the modern games when in 1936 it first appeared in the Berlin Olympics. The truce from war during the ancient games was to protect those athletes coming from alien parts of the Greek Empire. The peace and accord associated with the games is a modern concept and has nothing to do with the original games. When Pierre de Coubertin visited Greece he saw the five intertwined rings on a monument to the ancient games. The rings symbolised the five circles on a sacred discus in which the terms of the truce for the Pythian Games were inscribed. He took the insignia for the Modern games and the five rings represent the five continents of the world.

The brief history of the Ancient Games and the curse of Myrtilus

2008-04-14T03:27:00.000-07:00

The first organised games took place in Greece in 776 BC. The ancient games were part of a religious festival honouring Zeus and were the scene of great political rivalries. They were also the sites of many controversies, boasts, public announcements and humiliation. Held every four years for nearly 1,100 years they began in 776 BC and ended in 393 AD. There were four Panhellenic games. The Pythian Games were held in Delphi in honour of Apollo. The winners were given a crown of laurel leaves. The Nemean Games were held in Nemea in honour of Zeus. Champions were given garlands of fresh wild celery. The Isthmian Games were held in Cornith in honour of Poseidon where pine branches were given to the champions. The most famous were the Olympics held at Olympia in honour of Zeus. Olympic champions were given olive leaves to commemorate their victories. The games alternated so there was an athletic festival every year. Ancient Greeks kept calendars by "Olympiads" or four-year spans to correspond with the games. The ancient games took place at the first moon after the summer solstice (Guhl & Koner, 1994), and victors became heroes. Winners were presented with an amphora (two handed vessel) full of the finest olive oil. The vessels were decorated with scenes of the particular event. Originally the athletes were amateurs but eventually they received prize money and even appearance money. The Olympics were the one exception. The origins of the games remain shrouded in mystery but some historians believe it may have been to celebrate a foot race organised by the guardians of the infant Zeus. Others think the ancient games arose as a celebration of Pelops defeat over King Oenomaus in a chariot race. The prize was the hand of Princess Hippodamia. However not entirely out of character, Pelops cheated in the chariot race which resulted in the death of Myrtilus the charioteer. With his dying breath Myrtilus cursed Pelops and many believe the curse of Pelops is the main reason for the many misfortunes which are associated with both the ancient and modern games. Because the ancient games were a celebration of the gods they were held in one of the oldest religious centres in ancient Greece, Olympia. This was at the site of a great temple. The settling was practical in that it was a venue with easy access. Travellers from distant parts of Greece travelled to compete in the games. An international truce among the Greeks was established for the month before and after the games to allow the athletes and judges to reach Olympia safely. Judges had the power to fine and or disqualify entire cities for breaking the truce. The games grow in popularity and competitors came from far and wide. At first, non Greeks could not compete but Greeks came from as far as Spain and the Ukraine. After the 2nd century AD, the Roman Empire brought more competitors to the games. Greeks boys were trained for the competition from early in their schooling. Like today's serious athletes their sport required mental dedication, top conditioning, and outstanding athletic ability in order to make the grade. The Greeks believed rigorous training should not commence until after three years of study and the child had reached puberty. Athletes had to take an oath they had trained for 10 months prior to competition. Competitors were naked which remains a mystery but two plausible theories include competitors may have tripped over their long shorts and died during competition and the other was to ensure no women could compete. Married women were forbidden to travel to the Olympic Games and only men and unmarried girls were allowed to attend. Women began to complete around AD 200. The only sporting event was a short race. Cornith had a thriving sex industry and it is likely the athletic games provided an ideal opportunity for men to indulge in extramarital sex. (Rancier L, 1997). The first games were staged near a big olive tree dedicated to the father of the gods and men. From it, athletes received their glorious prize - a garland of olive leaves said to give magical properties to the victors of the station, or stadium. The first Olympian was a cook Koroibos from Elis, the home of Zeus's sanctuary and the ancient games. Records and timing did not exist nor did gold, silver and bronze medals. Only the winner mattered in the ancient games and stood to gain considerably from their efforts. In Athens once a winner was declared champion they received free meat for life. Cities lured successful athletes to live within their boundaries so they could represent their interests on the competition. Some athletes were known to receive appearance money. Men dominated and women were not allowed to compete or watch the events. Married women had their own sports festival and these were dedicated to goddesses Hera and Demeter protector of agriculture and fertility. Olympians were gods and had fans as well as statues and songs and poetry written in their honour. Scandals were as frequent then as they are today and the first briber scandal was in 388 BC. A boxer bribed two opponents to throw their fights and was caught, fined and banned from the competition. Athlete who transgressed during the ancient games was publicly whipped by the adjudicators. Judges themselves were held accountable for their behaviour and as early as 396 BC two were fined for showing favouritism. Under the Roman emperors, the games deteriorated into professional carnivals and circuses. Emperor Theodosius eventually banned them in 394 A.D.

References
Guhl E Koner W 1994 The greeks:their life and customs London:Senate
Rancier L 1997 The sex chronicles Santa Monica: General Publishing Group

History of the foot race

2008-04-13T01:02:00.000-07:00

The Greeks were the first ancient nation to acknowledge the importance of corporeal exercise. (Guhl & Koner, 1994). Athletic games and religion were the central parts of the lives of the ancient Greeks and a key ingredient of many religious festivals. Distance was important and the human foot was predominant in all measuring systems. The ancient Egyptians used a "step" for a measurement, actually a two step stride was equivalent to two yards. The ancient Greeks adopted this and a distance of 100"steps" (about 200 metres) became a stade. This was a popular distance for foot races. Amphitheatres where foot races were held were called a stadium. Later a miole or mille passum (Latin) meant 1000 double paces or strides and in ancient Rome this equalled about 5000 feet or a little short of the accepted mile (5,282 feet). The 200metre (656 ft), foot race was the only event in the first 13 Olympiads, but as time passed the Greeks added different events. At first longer foot races were added then other physical events. The pentathlon and wrestling were the first new sports and these appeared in the 19th Olympiad. The foot race consisted of a simple race in which the racecourse had to be run over once from beginning to end. The runners used to appear naked except in earlier times when they wore loin cloths. Any tricks bribery, or force employed by competitors to gain advantage upon others were strictly prohibited. After 450BC foot races started from mechanical starting gate. The starter had a whip with which to beat the athletes who started too soon or broke the rules. The stadium's length was 192m long and 32 m wide. Armoured racing featured a gruelling event in which competitors, in body armour weighing an estimated 25kg ran two to four lengths of the Olympic stadium. These and other events were part of military training.

References
Guhl E Koner W 1994 The greeks:their life and customs London:Senate
Hanna A 1985 Design in strude:explorations in shoe design Industrial Design Jan/Feb pp40-45.

Yao Ming on the mend

2008-03-05T03:09:00.000-08:00

According to news reports Yao Ming (27) has had successful surgery to repair the stress fracture on the navicular at Memorial Hermann-Texas Medical Center. The big man will also have a the long road to recovery but optomists are hopeful he may play at the Beiijing Olympics 2008 because the experts believe his recovery time will be about four months. The symptoms of a stress fracture of the navicular can be vague but the person usually complains of aching pain in the dorsal (top) midfoot which often then radiates along the medial arch. The condition gets worse with activity and continued participation means the athlete takes longer to recover. Symptoms are usually restricted to the one foot. The condition was first described in humans in a 1970 study but identifying the location of the lesion on plain radiographs was difficult. It was soon recognised to be an injury common to track and field athletes as better scanning technology became available. A triple-phase bone scan helps to localise the early lesion and this is followed by a computed tomographic scan to confirm anatomical detail. When the fracture is simple, non-displaced, non-comminuted then it responds well (86% recovery) to six week immobilisation in a nonweight-bearing cast. Once the pain (or N stop) is asymptomatic then functional rehabilitation can begin. However more complex displacements, comminution, and delayed or non-union fractures need surgical intervention with open reduction screw internal fixation, with possible bone graft inlay. According to Dr Kevin Kirby, the screw is placed across the fracture site to compress it and bring about faster healing. The bone graft placement at the fracture site is optional. As in the case of Yao, surgical intervention may be indicated in athletes who need quick healing to allow them to return to play. The average time for athletes to return to play after surgical intervention compared with conservative management using a nonweight-bearing cast is 3.8 months and 5.6 months, respectively. Any reduction in non-playing salary is cost benefit to a commercial sports club.

Foot fracture claims Chinese Star

2008-03-01T02:07:00.000-08:00

Yao Ming the Chinese basketball giant (2.26-meter or 7-foot-6 inches) who is the centre for the Houston Rockets is out for the season with his left foot injured caused by over-use fatique (stress fracture) and will sadly missed the 2008 Olympics. Yao is the best known Chinese athlete and a most charismatic star, will be sadly missed. Olympic hurdler, Liu Xiang, is the current world champion, and world record-holder who after Yao, is the best-known Chinese sportsman internationally. Senior athletics officials confirmed all efficient measures have been taken to secure the safety of the star hurdler. According to Sun Haiping (coach) the world 110m champion and Olympic gold medalist has enjoyed his "best ever" winter training regime and is eager for competitions. At present, there are more than 30 doctors working for the whole team.